この項目は、実際のフライトにも直結していました。例えば、「New Engine Break-In and Operation（エンジン交換後の慣らし運転と運用）」を習っていたときは、「エンジン交換なんてあり得ないっしょ」と思っていましたが、その後、実際にエンジン交換した直後の機体に乗ることがあって、「確か、最初の50時間の滑油（Oil）は別の種類だったよな」とか「パワー（出力）を出すのはそっとしなくちゃ」ということが、この機械恐怖症の私でも思い浮かびました。あまりにもそっとパワーを出していたら、「ゆっくり過ぎる」と言われましたが・・・
＜性能（Performance）＞
TEST PREPで学ぶ項目は、離陸距離、巡航出力設定、着陸距離、向い風・横風成分、最大航続距離性能です。
In the previous unit, I learned the basics of weather. In this unit, I explored the actual tools we use to obtain weather information for flight operations.
METAR and TAF
During my Private Pilot License (PPL) training, checking the METAR and TAF reports became part of my daily routine. Since PPL flights are conducted under Visual Flight Rules (VFR), certain weather conditions must be met—specifically, a ceiling of at least 1,000 feet and visibility of at least 3 statute miles. METARs and TAFs are aviation weather reports provided in a coded text format (now also available in graphical form). METARs are actual weather observations, while TAFs are forecasts. Both can be accessed through the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) website: AWC - METeorological Aerodrome Reports (METARs) (aviationweather.gov).
To retrieve weather data:
· Enter the ICAO station identifier(s) in the “IDs” field under Request METAR Data.
· You can input multiple station IDs separated by spaces. International (non-U.S.) stations are also supported.
· Select the Raw format to view coded METAR/TAF reports, or choose Decoded to see them in plain language.
· To view both METAR and TAF reports, check the box for Include TAF, then click Get METAR Data.
Here’s an example of a coded METAR/TAF report you’ll see:
In New York, it is said that even people outside the aviation industry often check METAR and TAF reports to see the day’s weather, which is great.
What is a Ceiling?
The ceiling is defined as the height above the ground of the lowest cloud layer that is reported as broken or overcast, or the vertical visibility into an obscuration such as fog or haze. According to the FAA’s Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (PHAK): For aviation purposes, the ceiling refers to the lowest cloud layer reported as broken or overcast, or the vertical visibility into an obscuration like fog or haze. Clouds are classified as broken when they cover five-eighths to seven-eighths of the sky, while overcast means the entire sky is covered with clouds. Think of it as the height of the “cloud ceiling.” Therefore, the ceiling is measured in feet above ground level (AGL), not feet above mean sea level (MSL).
Although this interpretation is not perfect, the United States is one of the signatories of the United Nations-affiliated World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The Aviation Weather Center (AWC) operates under the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), which is part of the National Weather Service (NWS), itself a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), under the Department of Commerce (DOC). Besides METAR and TAF, the AWC issues AIRMETs (adverse weather warnings), SIGMETs (more severe weather warnings), Convective SIGMETs (thunderstorm-related warnings), and more. The NCEP consists of nine centers, and the AWC is one of them.
During a certain season, the area where I trained for my PPL was often foggy in the mornings, but the fog usually cleared up quickly as the temperature rose. Before I learned this, I used to feel relaxed whenever I saw foggy weather with low ceilings and poor visibility, thinking that there would be no flight training that day. However, the weather would typically clear around 11:00 a.m., and I would rush to get ready for my flight. Since then, I’ve decided to prepare for flight training no matter how bad the morning weather looks.
PIREP (Pilot Report)
A Pilot Report, commonly called a PIREP, is a report made by pilots about weather conditions they encounter during flight. These reports act as valuable warnings for other pilots and provide Air Traffic Control (ATC) with important information about potential hazards in the airspace.
A typical PIREP includes details such as location, time, altitude or flight level, aircraft type, sky conditions (including cloud base, top, and coverage), visibility, weather phenomena, temperature, wind direction and speed, turbulence, icing, and additional remarks. Remarks might cover phenomena like low-level wind shear (LLWS), thunderstorm lines with their coverage and movement, lightning, volcanic ash, and more.
The aircraft type mentioned in a PIREP is especially important. For example, what is reported as moderate turbulence for a large aircraft could actually feel like severe turbulence to a smaller plane, such as a training aircraft like ours.
Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA)
One thing I didn’t have during my Private Pilot License (PPL) training but encountered later during my instrument rating training is the Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA). Nowadays, various weather data are presented in graphic formats, making them much easier and more convenient to read. With these advancements, some traditional weather products have been phased out or are in the process of being eliminated. The world of aviation is always evolving, isn’t it?
By clicking the top menu button, you’ll see a variety of information including TAFs, ceiling and visibility (CIG/VIS), clouds, precipitation and weather phenomena (PCPN/WX), thunderstorms (TS), winds, low-level windshear (LLWS), turbulence (Turb), and icing (Ice).
Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast
When planning cross-country flights, we create a navigation log (NAV LOG), which functions like an airplane’s itinerary. To prepare the NAV LOG accurately, it’s essential to use Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast data. This information helps determine the heading by taking into account the wind direction, wind speed, and temperature at various points along the route.
NAV LOG
Inflight Weather Advisories
Understanding weather advisories is crucial for safe flying. These warnings are available both as text and graphical information on the Graphical Forecast for Aviation (GFA). For detailed updates, you can check the Aviation Weather Center website: AIRMETs and SIGMETs (aviationweather.gov).
Convective SIGMETs are issued for hazardous convective weather, such as embedded thunderstorms, tornadoes, hail with a diameter of 3/4 inch or greater, surface winds exceeding 50 knots, and lines of thunderstorms.
SIGMETs warn of severe weather conditions not related to thunderstorms, including severe icing, severe or extreme turbulence, clear air turbulence, sandstorms, volcanic ash, and more.
AIRMETs forecast less severe but still significant weather phenomena compared to SIGMETs, which pilots should also be aware of during flight.
Obtaining a Telephone Weather Briefing
Pilots can receive appropriate weather briefings by calling the Flight Service Station (FSS). Weather specialists provide three types of briefings: Standard, Abbreviated, and Outlook. I found this quite surprising, as in Japan, such services for pilots are mostly airline-focused. The U.S. truly is an aviation country!
Standard Briefing: A comprehensive briefing that covers all necessary information. When requesting this, be sure to inform them that you will be flying VFR (Visual Flight Rules) only.
Abbreviated Briefing: A shortened version of the standard briefing. This is useful if your departure has been delayed or if you need to update previous weather information.
Outlook Briefing: Requested when your planned departure is six hours or more away, providing a forecast for that timeframe.
When calling, pilots should provide their aircraft identification or pilot’s name and specify the type of briefing they need.
In addition to these briefings, pilots can also access various weather charts to aid in flight planning, such as Surface Analysis Chart.
Surface Analysis Chart
Significant Weather Prognostic Chart, From my PHAK Translation Notebook
Up Next: Aircraft Performance (To Be Continued...)
The height above the earth’s surface of the lowest layer of clouds, which is reported as broken or overcast, or the vertical visibility into an obscuration.
I’m currently studying weather—a subject I’ve grown to enjoy over time. It all started during my ground school for the Private Pilot License (PPL), when I first discovered an interest in it. That interest deepened during my self-study for the Instrument Rating, where I truly began to find the subject fascinating.
Later, when I began preparing for the Advanced Ground Instructor (AGI) license after completing my instrument training, I started collecting various weather-related books. My curiosity expanded, and I found myself enjoying the study more than ever. Like with other topics in aviation, the more I learned, the more I realized how much I didn’t know. This growing awareness fueled my motivation to understand the subject more thoroughly. I even created my own translation notebook to help me digest and internalize concepts from different aviation textbooks. At that time, I was simply excited to learn something new—not because I fully understood it yet, but because the process itself was inspiring.
The first topic in the Weather unit of TEST PREP is “The Heating of the Earth.”
Have you ever wondered why this comes first? It's probably because most weather phenomena on Earth are driven by this very process—the heating of the Earth.
Just imagine the journey of air masses as they travel around the globe, encountering different weather events, all starting from this simple but powerful force: the sun heating our planet.
Since the Earth is round, solar energy doesn’t reach every part of the surface equally. The angle of sunlight and the amount of energy received per unit area vary between the equator and the poles. This uneven heating creates temperature differences across the Earth’s surface—and those differences are what set our weather systems in motion.
Weather is largely driven by the unequal heating of the Earth’s surface. When certain areas warm up more than others, the warmer air rises because it becomes less dense. More precisely, the air expands, its density decreases, and the number of air molecules per unit volume is reduced—making the air lighter. As this warm air rises, cooler air from the surrounding regions flows in to replace it. This movement sets off a chain reaction: the surface air is constantly replenished, and atmospheric circulation is generated both vertically and horizontally. This is how wind and large-scale circulation patterns are created.
Air temperature constantly varies, and air also contains moisture, which we measure in terms of relative humidity and dew point. When we look at air masses based on their temperature and moisture content, we find that fronts form at the boundaries where two different types of air masses meet. From a vertical perspective, we can analyze the stability of the atmosphere, which plays a key role in determining the types of clouds that form.
The most severe turbulence is often found inside cumulonimbus clouds, which are formed by strong convective currents. Among all weather phenomena, thunderstorms deserve our highest caution. They can bring not only turbulence but also hail and lightning, both of which can pose serious risks to flight safety.
A sudden change in wind direction and/or speed over a short distance is known as wind shear. Low-level wind shear around airports can be particularly dangerous for aircraft during the approach and landing phases. Clouds often contain supercooled water droplets—liquid moisture that remains unfrozen even below 0°C. When these droplets come into contact with an aircraft, structural icing can occur. This is especially hazardous when it affects the leading edges or upper surfaces of the wings, where a loss of lift of up to 30% and an increase in drag by 40% can severely compromise flight performance.
Fog is a surface-based cloud that significantly reduces visibility. This is especially problematic for aircraft operating under Visual Flight Rules (VFR), where pilots must rely on clear visual references to navigate safely. Frost forms when the temperature of a surface falls below the dew point of the surrounding air, and the dew point is below freezing. Frost disrupts the smooth flow of air over the wing surface, causing early airflow separation and resulting in a loss of lift.
Air temperature varies and air always contains moisture, measured in terms of relative humidity and dew point. When different air masses with contrasting temperature and moisture characteristics meet, they form fronts, which are key factors in weather changes. Looking at the atmosphere vertically, we can evaluate its stability. The type of clouds that form depends on this stability. For example, unstable conditions can lead to the formation of cumulonimbus clouds, which are associated with the strongest turbulence due to intense convective activity. Above all, thunderstorms demand our utmost caution—not only because of turbulence, but also due to the presence of hail and lightning, both of which can pose serious threats to flight safety.
Weather is essentially the result of the Earth's surface heating, which sets off a chain of atmospheric changes. In this section of the TEST PREP, we’ll explore how that process gives rise to various weather phenomena. The bracketed items listed above will be introduced in the following order:
Heating of the Earth
Circulation and Wind
Temperature
Air Masses
Fronts
Stability and Atmosphere
Clouds
Turbulence
Thunderstorms
Wind Shear
Icing
Fog
Frost
Weather is one of the most fascinating topics in PPL training. I wish I had more time to explore every detail, but for now, here’s a quick overview. Cumulonimbus clouds are known for their powerful updrafts and downdrafts occurring simultaneously, which can cause severe turbulence. Their distinctive anvil-shaped tops spread in the direction the cloud is moving, giving a visual clue about its path.
Inside a cumulonimbus cloud, strong updrafts and downdrafts coexist.
The anvil shape at the top right indicates the direction in which the cumulonimbus cloud is moving.
Meanwhile, pilots are naturally inclined to think ahead as they observe the clouds and the sky. In the next article, we’ll explore Weather Services—how to gather essential weather information for flying. You’ll also get familiar with some common aviation terms along the way. (To be continued…)
私の大好きな本を何冊も書いていらっしゃる雲研究者で気象庁気象研究所研究官、学術博士の荒木健太郎さんが空気の塊を「パーセルくん」と呼んでいるのをパクらせていただいて、空気の塊を「空（くう）ちゃん」と呼ばせていただき、空ちゃんが地球が太陽エネルギーを受けること（The Heating of the Earth）を始点として、様々な気象現象を体験する地球での旅を考えてみたいと思います。
『地球は丸いため、赤道付近と極付近では、地球を暖める太陽エネルギー（The Heating of the Earth）による日射角度も単位面積当たりの地表が受け取るエネルギーも異なり、地表に温度差ができる。
暖められた地表と冷えた地表があるとき、暖められた空気の空ちゃんは軽くなる（膨張して密度が下がったために空気塊の単位体積当たりの空気分子が減少する）ので上昇し、そこに周囲から冷えた空気の空ちゃんが流れ込む。そのために冷えた表面にも空気が補充され、上下左右に大気の循環が起こり、風が吹く（Circulation and Wind）。
It's been about a month since I began studying for the written exam. By the time I finish this unit, I'll be roughly halfway through my Test Prep. The previous unit already included a lot of laws and regulations to memorize, and this one has even more—it's almost overwhelming.
I also need to go back and review what I’ve learned so far to make sure I don’t forget anything. It’s a lot to take in, but I’m determined to keep going!
Setting Unrealistic Goals and Airport Operations
I have a tendency to set unrealistic goals—often because I don’t fully recognize my own abilities or limitations. About a month into any new endeavor, I usually come to realize that it's either more trouble than I expected or, in some cases, turns into a complete disaster.
Fortunately, when I started studying for the written exam before heading to the U.S., it wasn’t quite that serious. It was just another example of me getting ahead of myself—but this time, with a bit more awareness.
Now, let’s move on to a topic I truly enjoy: Airport Operations.
So Many Airports in the U.S.!
In Japan, when we think of airports, we usually picture places with paved runways where pilots talk to air traffic controllers. That’s the standard image—large, controlled airports with towers. But in this unit, I learned that the U.S. has so many different types of airports! There are, of course, controlled airports (also called tower-controlled airports), but there are also plenty of uncontrolled airports—airports without air traffic controllers.
Even more interesting, there are part-time tower airports, where controllers are available during the day but go off duty at night. And then, while reading aeronautical charts, I discovered many private airports. These are owned by individuals or companies and are generally not open to the public—unless it’s an emergency.
Private airports? Really? What’s going on?
So many airports on the chart here and there. It should be fun. Only if I owned an airplane...
Sectional Chart
There are all kinds of runways—not just paved ones, but also grass and dirt strips, and even runways on water (though those require a different class of license). Standing there, I felt as if I were already in the United States.
Traffic Pattern and Landing Training
Flight training begins with what was, for me, the most terrifying part—air work. That includes basic maneuvers, stall recovery, and other in-air exercises. Once that’s behind you, the focus shifts to landing training, which follows a specific route and set of rules known as the Traffic Pattern.
My landing training was intense—honestly, a bit of a rollercoaster. I was on the verge of tears, and sometimes actually crying, because no matter how hard I tried, my landings just weren’t improving. What kept me going was my instructor: someone who knew exactly when to encourage me, when to be brutally honest, and who often demonstrated landings that mimicked mine—mistakes and all—so I could see clearly what needed to change and how to fix it.
Flight training is never a solo effort. It’s always a collaboration between instructor and student. And even though it was tough, and I struggled a lot, it’s strange—not once did I ever want to quit.
Understanding the Traffic Pattern: A Key to Safe Flying
When flying in the traffic pattern, pilots are generally required to make all turns to the left—unless right turns are specifically designated by regulations. As we study the traffic pattern, we also learn the names of each leg: Upwind Leg, Crosswind Leg, Downwind Leg, Base Leg, and Final Leg. These names not only help us understand the flow of aircraft in the pattern but also improve situational awareness in the air.
One interesting feature, especially for those of us flying in Japan, is the Segmented Circle. It’s not something we often see here. This ground-based visual aid consists of a circle and directional bars, and it provides valuable guidance on the correct direction of the traffic pattern at uncontrolled airports.
Learning Airport Markings and Wind Indicators (and a Monster?!)
One of the elements you'll find in a segmented circle is a wind direction indicator—commonly known as a wind sock, wind cone, or sometimes a tetrahedron. A tetrahedron, by definition, is a solid with four triangular faces of equal size. But in Japanese, the word sounds oddly similar to the name of a monster—go figure! Chapter 14 of the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (PHAK) covers airport operations, including markings and signs.
From my PHAK Translation Notebook
I really enjoyed learning about all the different markings and signs through photos, diagrams, and illustrations. But here’s the thing—if I couldn’t actually use that knowledge during real-world operations, what good was it? Later on in flight training, I realized that there was a surprising disconnect between what I knew and what I could do in the cockpit. It felt like my brain had hit a patch of turbulence (LOL). Of course, nobody was laughing during flight training—not even me. So I had to study and review everything over and over again—probably way more than the others—just to catch up.
Fun to Learn Something New
Today, I learned something new about airport lighting!
When we think of airport lighting in Japan, most people probably picture runway lights and taxiway lights like these: ↓
This reminds us of typical airport lighting in Japan.
In-pavement type light unit
Discovering Airport Beacons – Like Lighthouses for Pilots
Until recently, I had no idea how many different types of airport lighting systems existed. One of the most interesting ones I learned about is the airport beacon, also known as the rotating beacon. Believe it or not, airports have something like lighthouses, too! These beacons, often mounted on the roof of a terminal building or a nearby tower, rotate and flash different colors to help pilots identify the airport—especially at night or in low visibility conditions.
Typically, airport beacons operate from sunset to sunrise. However, if you see one running during the day, it usually means the weather is below VFR minimums. Also, the color combination of the beacon tells you what kind of airport you're looking at—for example, a civilian airport, water airport, heliport, or military airfield.
When I did my night flight training as part of the PPL curriculum, I was surprised at how dark airports looked from a distance. I expected to spot a runway easily, but that wasn't the case. My instructor told me, “Don’t look for the airport—look for the airport beacon.” That advice really helped. Once I started scanning for the beacon instead, finding the airport became much easier.
Recently, with the increasing number of simulator facilities available for fun, most people have become familiar with PAPI. However, during training, you might encounter a small airport equipped with a Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) instead of PAPI. VASI is similar to PAPI but simpler, and it comes in several types, including the Tricolor VASI.
From my PHAK Translation Notebook
Flight-Related Medical Factors
Other important topics include how to handle crosswinds while taxiing, the Chart Supplement—which contains essential airport and route information used daily during flights—and aeromedical factors such as hypoxia, hyperventilation, carbon monoxide exposure, and spatial disorientation.
Above all, I personally experienced a mild case of spatial disorientation during a flight. While it often occurs in reduced visibility or night flights, my experience happened during a VFR (Visual Flight Rules) daytime flight. Following my instructor’s advice, I tried looking to the side, which helped improve my orientation. In conditions of reduced visibility, it is crucial to rely on instruments, as emphasized in test preparation materials. Chapter 17 of the PHAK (Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge), which covers aeromedical factors, is a fascinating resource for deeper understanding.
FAA’s Typical Approaches to Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)
Lastly, I’d like to touch on Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM), a broad and essential topic thoroughly covered in Chapter 2 of the PHAK.
One key part is understanding the five hazardous attitudes common to human behavior, along with their respective antidotes:
(i) Anti-authority
(ii) Impulsivity
(iii) Invulnerability
(iv) Macho
(v) Resignation
The most important step is to recognize which attitudes you might have, so you can stay aware and manage them during the flight.
I In addition, you will learn about the PAVE checklist, which helps reduce risks, as well as problem-solving and decision-making frameworks like the 5P Model and the P Model (PAVE, CARE, TEAM). I can’t help but notice how much they like using acronyms!
From my PHAK Translation Notebook
The written exam covers only a limited range of topics, and we will study them in more detail later during ground school. At first, I found it hard to study systematically because of all the acronyms—it was quite confusing. Looking back, I wish I had spent more time reading the PHAK (Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge).
Of course, applying your knowledge to real flight decisions is far more important—this is a note to myself. Case studies seem especially valuable, as they are becoming more prominent in recent oral exams. Next time, I’ll discuss aviation weather, which is closely connected to Earth and space. (To be continued)
」と言われて、この項目を数回に分けて説明していただきました。当時の私には、とてもじゃないけど読む気のしなかった頁ですから、教官と共にこれを読みながら説明していただいたおかげで、今、こんなに飛行機の勉強が楽しくなれたのかもしれません。
」とかの問題じゃないし、空気密度によって性能が変わると言われても、「空気密度って何？」という私でした。要するに気圧と気温によって決まるということが分かるまでにものすごく時間が掛りました。密度によって空気の色が違えばわかり易いのに、とか呟いていました。
・・・「このグラフは何が言いたいのか」という質問をしていたのは、おそらく私だけでしょう。本当に申し訳なかったです。
