(available only in Japanese), each ATIS broadcast is identified by a phonetic code—Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, and so on. When listening to ATIS, you'll hear numbers such as time, altitude, wind direction and speed, and visibility. These are all read in a special aviation format. For example:
Altitude:
4,500 feet is said as: “Four Thousand Five Hundred”
10,500 feet becomes: “One Zero Thousand, Five Hundred” (Yes, I know—we rarely go that high in PPL training!)
When flying an aircraft like HAWK 66CB, your initial call sign over the radio should sound like:
“HAWK Six Six Charlie Bravo.”
(You skip repeating the first “Six,” which can be confusing at first.)
Other Communication Channels
Let’s take a look at some of the other common communication services and frequencies you’ll encounter:
🔹 Flight Service Station (FSS)
According to the FAA Pilot/Controller Glossary, FSS facilities provide a wide range of services:
Pilot briefings
Flight plan filing and processing
In-flight advisories
Search and rescue coordination
Emergency assistance
ATC clearance relay
NOTAM processing
Aviation weather and aeronautical information broadcasts
Customs/Immigration coordination for international flights
🔹 UNICOM
A non-government communication station at certain airports. It may provide useful information such as runway in use, wind, and local traffic advisories. Frequencies are published on sectional charts and airport directories.
🔹 MULTICOM
Used at airports without any communication facility. It’s a shared frequency for self-announcing your position and intentions—essentially, a community frequency for private pilots.
CTAF (Common Traffic Advisory Frequency)
As explained in the PHAK Chapter 14 (Airport Operations), CTAF is the frequency used at airports without an operating control tower. It's where pilots broadcast their position and intentions to maintain situational awareness and coordinate safely with others.
CTAF frequencies might be one of the following:
UNICOM
MULTICOM
FSS
Or a designated tower frequency used as CTAF when the tower is not in operation.
All of these are clearly indicated in official aeronautical publications. You can find the CTAF frequency listed under the “Communications” section in the U.S. Chart Supplement.
On aeronautical charts, a CTAF frequency is stated as one of the airport information just nearby the airport with a solid dot with the white letter “C” inside. After taking off from Runway 15L or 15R at Santa Barbara Airport (KSBA), the left turn offers a beautiful view of the Pacific Ocean. It’s one of those moments that reminds you why flying is so special.
I recently came across an interesting FAA video on YouTube that features KSBA. If you're curious about the airport or want to see what it’s like from a pilot’s perspective, it’s definitely worth watching.
The aeronautical chart and photo below are of Santa Barbara Municipal Airport (KSBA), one of my favorite airports.
A pilot's view in a left turn after airborne from RWY 15L or 15R facing the sea at KSBA.
I found an interesting FAA video about KSBA on YouTube.
Radio Communication Failure
Lost communication procedures are part of the PPL curriculum—and for good reason. Since many training aircraft are quite old, radio failures, while uncommon, aren't out of the question. In fact, one of my instructors actually experienced it during a flight. He followed the established procedures and landed safely.
At towered airports, if radio communication is lost, the control tower uses a light gun to direct aircraft. The light gun emits steady or flashing green, red, or white signals, each with a specific meaning.
Other Topics Covered
We also covered flight plans—which are not mandatory under VFR—radar advisories, transponder and ADS-B requirements, and Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELTs). That wraps up the written exam portion. After finishing the TEST PREP material, I took advantage of the five free online practice tests included with the booklet.
To move forward, I need to score 80% or higher on one of these tests. Once I do, I’ll show the result to my instructor and get the required endorsement in my logbook when I arrive in the U.S. and visit the testing center.
Coming Up Next
In the next article, I’ll share what happened just before and after I arrived at the flying school in the U.S. Was it smooth and easy—or something else entirely...? Stay tuned!
無線通信では、自分の機体の番号を毎回伝えますが、数字は一つ一つ、アルファベットは、フォネティック・コード読みです。例えば、「HAWK 66CB」なら「HAWK Six Six Six Charlie Bravo」と読みます。高度「4,500 FT」は「Four Thousand Five Hundred」、「10,500 FT」は「One Zero Thousand, Five Hundred 」（PPLではこんな高い高度はまず飛びませんが）と読みます。
＜FSS、UNICOM、MULTICOM、CTAF＞
FSS、UNICOM、MULTICOM、CTAFという施設名が出てきますが、これらの用語の意味は：
＜FAA Pilot/Controller Glossary＞
Flight Service Station（FSS）：パイロットへのブリーフィング、飛行計画の処理、空域気象注意報業務（En Route Flight Advisories）、救難救助業務並びに機位喪失及び緊急事態における航空機の支援等を行う航空交通施設である。管制許可（ATC Clearance）の中継、航空情報（NOTAM）の処理、航空気象・航空情報の放送、国境を超える飛行の税関・入国管理局への通知も行う。
There are only two units left in TEST PREP. With my trip to the U.S. for training approaching, it was time to proceed with visa application and start thinking about what to bring with me, such a headset, recorder, and so on.
In the written exam, you will be primarily asked about Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Range (VOR). One of the questions expected is "What’s the position of the aircraft when the VOR needle indicates 320° radial of ABC VOR and 184° radial of DEF VOR?" You will also be asked about VOR receiver check while referring to an aeronautical chart, but only a certain scope of such knowledge is required in PPL training.
My understanding of VOR was so vague, and I couldn’t answer some of VOR questions on the written exam. Questions that were not answered correctly in the written exam will be asked again later in the oral portion of the checkride. So, you have to check them after the exam. As my instructor explained it to me just before the checkride, I managed to understand it within the scope of the PPL. Not only VOR but during entire training, instructors sincerely explained to my silly questions repeatedly. I can’t thank them enough. My knowledge still unreliable even after PPL training was improved during practicing the VOR Approach in my later instrument rating training.
PHAK, Chapter 16 Navigation explains VOR in a systematic approach.
From my PHAK Translation Notebook
The written exam covers more of a preliminary knowledge, followed by a more in-depth in the ground school about how to track and intercept VOR in flight, which was then implemented in the actual flight training.
As for VOR Tracking, PHAK descriptions may help you organize your thoughts.
From my PHAK Translation Notebook
Airplanes are constantly deflected by winds. I think I lacked this perspective. My VOR tracking was terrible, unable to fly on the course steadily, during the checkride flight. The examiner asked me, "What are you doing now?" I immediately thought I shouldn’t get disheartened, and I said, "I'm doing VOR tracking." The examiner might have been disgusted with my foolishness. Still, it seems I managed to do it.
The next article, finally, the last part of the TEST PREP, "Communication Procedures." The terms that I had never heard of such as CTAF, UNICOM, MULTICOM, etc. will appear. It was getting closer to the date of departure for the US, and I was a little nervous. (continued)
Private Pilot License (PPL) training is conducted under Visual Flight Rules (VFR), which means you primarily navigate by looking outside. During an enroute flight, you identify visual landmarks on the ground—such as highway interchanges, airports, bridges, towers, urban areas, stadiums, valleys, mountains, lakes, and coastlines—along your intended route. You match these features with your aeronautical chart to determine your current location. This helps you establish your direction of travel and the necessary heading. This basic form of navigation is called pilotage.
Aeronautical Charts
To support this, we learn how to read aeronautical charts. First, we study basic concepts like meridians of longitude and latitude, U.S. time zones, and time conversions. The main chart used is the Sectional Chart. In some urban areas, a more detailed chart called the Terminal Area Chart is available. There is also the World Aeronautical Chart, which covers larger areas but is more difficult to read due to its smaller print. When a single Sectional Chart does not cover the entire planned route, I use two adjacent Sectional Charts.
From my PHAK Translation Notebook
Aeronautical charts often remind aviation enthusiasts of Jeppesen charts. At the airport, the pilot shop was located in the same area where FBOs and pilot schools stood side by side. However, I was able to get FAA-issued charts at a lower price than Jeppesen charts. Aeronautical charts are generally updated twice a year. Since you need to use the latest editions, you may have to purchase new charts multiple times before completing your training.
I have bought this chart more than once, not because of revisions, but due to personal reasons. I might share more about those events in the future.
I find it enjoyable just to look at the chart. The map is drawn on both sides: it starts at the top of one side and then flips over to continue on the other side. The front cover, when folded, shows the effective date, and the other side displays the legend. The chart contains a wealth of information—not only terrain, but also major visual landmarks, airspace details, airport information, and more. The legend, although written in small letters, should be carefully read.
In particular, the airport information shown near each airport symbol is concise yet informative. It includes the FAA location identifier (which is conveniently the ICAO code with a 'K' prefix), tower control frequency, ATIS frequency, airport elevation, lighting system, the length of the longest runway, the runway used for right-hand traffic patterns, and so forth. This information, including the legend, is also available online:
Relying solely on pilotage can make it difficult to be certain of your position when flying over unfamiliar areas for the first time or under poor visibility conditions such as haze. To complement pilotage, pilots use dead reckoning—which determines position by calculating speed, elapsed time, and the effects of wind from a known point—along with radio navigation aids like VORs and NDBs.
In the FAA’s Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (PHAK), Chapter 16 on Navigation, the increasingly popular Global Positioning System (GPS) is classified as a ground-based radio navigation facility, similar to VORs and NDBs, and can be used for VFR navigation.
During cross-country flights, especially at night, it’s common for pilots to lose their position. When flying VFR in uncontrolled airspace, you may not be required to communicate with ATC. This means if you stray off course, no one will alert you. That’s why VFR pilots rely heavily on VFR charts to maintain situational awareness.
Dead Reckoning
PHAK, Chapter 16 Navigation, defines Dead Reckoning as navigation solely by computations based on time, airspeed, distance, and direction. By adding wind speed and direction to these calculations, you can determine the correct heading and ground speed (GS).
However, factoring in wind speed and direction is not easy. Wind has always been the most challenging element of flying. Landing is especially difficult because wind conditions vary with every flight. It wasn’t only during landing that I struggled—entering the traffic pattern was also challenging. Although I needed to intercept at the midpoint of the downwind leg (the middle point of the parallel route to the landing runway), I was always off. I was constantly pushed off course by the wind without making proper corrections.
For some reason, I was the only one looking in a different direction at the kindergarten dance recital—maybe it was a talent I was born with?
Various Directions
What confused me were the three kinds of directions: magnetic, true, and compass. Aeronautical charts are generally expressed in true direction because they are based on longitude and latitude, except for some compass roses — the circles around VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) facility symbols with notches — which are shown in magnetic direction.
Some weather products mentioned in my previous article .2 (8) 気象サービス（Weather Services） | 自家用操縦士訓練物語～超怖がりな私が空を飛んだ日（My PPL Training Days） (ameblo.jp) —such as METAR, TAF, Winds and Temperature Aloft Forecasts, and Surface Analysis Charts—are given in true directions, whereas PIREPs are reported in magnetic directions. ATIS and AWOS/ASOS reports received before departure reference magnetic directions. A helpful rule of thumb to remember is: “If it’s written, it’s true; if it’s spoken, it’s magnetic.” This is also explained in the PHAK, Chapter 13, Aviation Weather Services. Runway numbers are based on magnetic direction.
There are three directional concepts relevant to course and heading. The course is the aircraft’s path over the ground, while the heading is the direction the aircraft’s nose is pointed. To maintain the desired course when facing crosswinds, the aircraft must fly with its nose pointed into the wind.
To convert between true and magnetic directions, we use variation (VAR), which is the angle between True North and Magnetic North. To convert between magnetic and compass directions, we use deviation (DEV), which is the error caused by magnetic influences inside the aircraft — such as electrical circuits, radios, lights, tools, engines, and magnetized metal parts. Deviation varies by aircraft and even by heading within the same aircraft, so a Compass Deviation Card is mounted near the magnetic compass to provide correction values.
To summarize:
Tools for Chart Plotting and NAV LOG Preparation
I was advised to buy a plotter—a ruler combined with a protractor—and a flight computer, which I had never heard of before, for cross-country flight preparation. I also learned how to use them. Even though it's called a "flight computer," it's actually mechanical (although digital versions are also available these days). My instructor said, “Don’t underestimate this flight computer. It can do almost anything—if you know how to use it.”
The test prep materials included lots of calculation problems using a flight computer—for example, computing wind correction angle (WCA), ground speed, flight time, distance, fuel consumption, true airspeed (TAS), density altitude, and more. Since I tend to forget things, I sketched out how to use the flight computer, just as my instructor had taught me, and kept those drawings in my notebook. Sure enough, once I got to the U.S., I had forgotten everything—but thanks to those notes, I was saved!
We’re allowed to bring both a plotter and a flight computer to the written exam and the checkride.
Airspace – A Three-Dimensional Sky
Have you ever heard the term airspace? Recently, I’ve come across several articles about the “New Haneda Route” and how the U.S. military-controlled airspace near Tokyo interferes with commercial flight routes. Back then, I had no idea that airspace was actually separated and structured like that. This was a big realization for me!
When I studied aviation ground school in the U.S., I learned that airspace isn't just empty sky—it’s a system designed for flight safety, and it has evolved alongside the history of aviation. The more I learned, the more I realized how important it is to visualize airspace in 3D, understand its connection with aeronautical charts, and grasp how it relates to radio communication with ATC (Air Traffic Control).
Like airports, airspace can be either controlled or uncontrolled. In the U.S., airspace is categorized into Class A, B, C, D, E, and G—these can be referred to by their letter names or using the phonetic alphabet. There are also special types of airspace, such as Special Use Airspace, which includes prohibited or restricted areas.
To enter controlled airspace, pilots must receive clearance or at least establish radio contact. If they don’t, ATC may respond with a very clear message: “Call this number when you land.” Thanks to YouTube, you can now watch real ATC communications, and you might have heard this phrase! Getting such a call could lead to detailed questioning, or even affect a pilot’s license, depending on the circumstances.
During flight training, both the student and instructor may be so focused on flying that they accidentally enter controlled airspace without clearance. I’ve had some close calls myself. Once, I nearly entered controlled airspace without realizing it. On another occasion, a faulty instrument gave me incorrect altitude information, and I only noticed the mistake after a controller pointed it out. 😅
So yes—if you're flying VFR, always stay aware and double-check your position. The sky is big, but it's carefully organized!
From my PHAK Translation Notebook
The next unit in the TEST PPL course, “Navigation,” covers topics like VOR—which I couldn’t fully grasp during my original PPL training—and GPS, which led to some slapstick moments of mine and required extra training just for me to learn how to operate the equipment properly.
“Boston Tower Information Delta. One four zero zero Zulu. Wind two five zero at one zero. Visibility one zero. Ceiling four thousand five hundred broken. Temperature three four. Dew point two eight. Altimeter three zero one zero. ILS-DME Runway Two Seven Approach in use. Departing Runway Two Two Right. Hazardous Weather Information for (geographical area) available on Flight Service Frequencies. Advise on initial contact you have Delta.”
ATISは、タワー管制運用空港で、1時間に1回更新（毎時55分）され、天候の急激な変化に応じて、随時、特別報（SPECI）が通報される、人の声による録音放送です。ですから、昼間だけタワー管制が運用されているパートタイム運用空港（Part Time Airport）では夜間になるとデジタル音声で24時間放送されるASOSに変わります。
最初に全米の地図が出てくるので、調べたい空港の州をクリックして、その後、「or Enter a Weather Station Airport ID」というところにICAOコードを入れると、ATISの周波数と共に、該当するASOS又はAWOSの電話番号が出てきます。
＜ATISへんてこ事件＞
録音されたATISの最初に「〇〇 airport information “A (Alpha)”（〇〇空港、ATISの情報記号（ATIS Code）はAlphaです」と言います。このようにATISには記号が割当てられ、最後に「Advise on initial contact, you have information Alpha.（管制と初めて通信をする際、ATIS Alphaを聴取済みである旨、送信してください）」という文言で締めくくられます。
ある日のこと、エンジンを掛けてATISを聴取し、Delivery（管制承認伝達席）、Ground（地上管制）、Tower（タワー管制）の順に管制官と通信を行って離陸するいつもの手順です。ところが、ATISで最初に「〇〇airport information Alpha」と言っているのに、最後に「Advise on initial contact, you have information Bravo」と言っていました（？？？）。空港によって違いますが、Delivery（管制承認伝達席）又はGround（地上管制）に、自分が聴取したATIS Codeを伝えなければならないのですが、一応Delivery（管制承認伝達席）に「I have Bravo（Bravoを聴取済みです）」と言ってみたところ、「いやA（Alpha）だ」と言われました。もう一度ATISを聞き直しても同じでしたので、今度は「I have Alpha」と伝え、その後、Ground（地上管制）に同様に伝える（通常は、Deliveryに伝えたらGroundには伝える必要はないのですが、確認のために言ってみました）と、「いやB（Bravo）だ」と言われて大笑いしたことがありました。
ということで、地図、つまり航空図（Chart）の見方をここで学びます。まずは、緯度、経度、子午線、米国のタイムゾーンと米国内の時差計算など基本的な知識を学び、航空図を読めるようにします。航空図は、Sectional Chart（区分航空図）が主なものですが、都市部ではもっと詳細なTerminal Area Chartを使用します。広範囲を網羅しているWorld Aeronautical Chart（世界航空図）もありますが、「小さくて見にくい！」ので、1枚のSectional Chartでは足りないくらい遠くまで飛行する時は、可能であれば、Sectional Chartを隣り合わせて使用しました。
PHAK日英対訳ノートより
航空図（Chart）については、航空ファンの方ならJeppesen Chartに馴染みがあると思いますが、PPLの訓練中も空港のFBO（Fixed Base Operator）などが並ぶ区域内のパイロットショップで販売していました。ただ、こちらの方が高価なので私はFAA発行の航空図を使っていました。航空図には6か月くらいの有効期限があります。飛行訓練や試験では有効なものを使わなければならないので、タイミングによっては、試験までにもう一度買い替える必要も出てきます。
わかりにくい時は、「If written it’s true. If spoken it’s magnetic.（書いてあるものは真方位、音声によるものは磁方位）」っていうイメージで覚えると良いという人もいます。「いやいや、テキストのATISもあるから」とか言わないでくださいね。滑走路番号は磁方位です。
空港に管制空港と非管制空港があるように、空域にも管制空域と非管制空域があり、Class A、B、C、D、E、Gに分けます（A、B、C、D、E、Gはそれぞれ、アルファベット読みでも、フォネティック・コード読みでもOK）。その他に、特定用途空域（Special Use Airspace）として、飛行禁止空域（Prohibited Areas）などもあります。
At this point, I was about one-third of the way through the TEST PREP book. I found myself constantly going back to review what I had already learned while trying to absorb new material—because I kept forgetting things so easily. That was a real struggle.
Then I turned to the chapter titled “Aircraft Performance.”And I had a bad feeling. It was full of math problems… and long explanations—all in English. Yes, this chapter is all about calculations (with some tables and graphs thrown in). Topics include Weight and Balance, Density Altitude, Takeoff Distance, Cruise Power Setting, Landing Distance, and Headwind and Crosswind Components.
It went well, thanks to the instructor’s careful guidance on the calculations — just basic addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, which even I could handle. I found that the more I practiced, the better I understood, especially when I focused on what the numbers actually meant. As for the written exam, I managed just fine — but things didn’t stay that easy afterward.
Weight
"Weight and Balance," as the name suggests, involves calculating two key elements: the aircraft’s weight and its center of gravity (CG).
First, I learned about weight. The heavier the aircraft, the higher the required takeoff speed, which results in a longer takeoff roll. If you're departing from a short runway, this can be critical. An overloaded aircraft also climbs more slowly, has reduced cruising range and speed, and puts excessive stress on the structure—especially the landing gear. None of these outcomes are desirable.
What left the strongest impression on me was a video my instructor showed during ground school in the U.S. It showed a small plane overloaded and crashing shortly after takeoff. It was shocking—and it made me realize that weight calculation is something you should never take lightly. At first, I thought it was just a routine process with a standard formula, and as long as you followed the steps, you were fine. But I’ve come to understand that what really matters is doing the calculation with a strong safety mindset.
For example, in the Cessna 152 I flew during my training, we mainly needed to focus on longitudinal (pitch) stability, unless there was a significant imbalance in fuel consumption between the left and right tanks. Even something like this was surprising to me at the time!
When I flew the Cessna 152 during my training, I was surprised to learn that we mainly need to think about longitudinal stability (pitch) — unless there’s an imbalance in fuel consumption between the two tanks. Even something like that was new to me.
In Chapter 10 of the PHAK, the center of gravity (CG) is defined as the point at which the aircraft would balance if it were suspended in midair from that spot. If the CG is outside the range specified by the aircraft manufacturer — known as the CG range — it can negatively affect stall recovery, performance, and the control forces required during flight. This CG range is published in a thick binder known as the POH (Pilot's Operating Handbook), which contains essential information about the aircraft.
From my PHAK Translation Notebook
Since the CG (center of gravity) varies depending on the instruments and equipment installed, a POH (Pilot's Operating Handbook) must be published for each individual aircraft, even if the aircraft type is the same. This POH must be carried onboard.
For everyday study, however, we use a booklet called the Information Manual, which contains only general information common to all aircraft of the same type. This means that when calculating weight and balance, we must use the specific POH of the aircraft we are going to fly.
The Information Manual (or POH) includes not only weight and balance data but also many other important sections—such as aircraft specifications to be memorized for the oral exam, Emergency Procedures to be demonstrated on the checkride, routine Preflight Inspection checklists, performance data, and more.
What impressed me the most was the Airplane and Systems Descriptions section, packed with dense, tiny English text on every page.
At my second flight school, an instructor—knowing that aircraft systems were my weakness—taught me this section more thoroughly than he did other students. At first, I couldn’t bring myself to read it alone; it felt overwhelming and beyond both my ability and motivation. But fortunately, I read it together with him, and that experience sparked my interest in aircraft systems—something I had once struggled with.
This chapter turned out to be very useful for real flight situations. For example, when I was learning about new engine break-in and operation, I never imagined I would actually fly a plane with a freshly installed engine. But later on, I did! I ended up flying the airplane right after its engine had been replaced.
I remembered that a different type of oil should be used until the engine reaches 50 hours of operation, and that I needed to handle the power gently. When I slowly increased the throttle, my instructor told me I was being too slow… LOL!
Aircraft Performance
Topics covered in the TEST PREP include takeoff distance, cruise power settings, landing distance, headwind and crosswind components, and maximum range performance.
At first, I had no idea what aircraft performance even meant. When it came to air density, it took me a long time to understand that it’s determined by both air pressure and temperature. I thought it would be so much easier to grasp if air were color-coded based on its density!
To make matters worse, I couldn’t read graphs. I might’ve been the only one asking, “What does this graph even mean?” Honestly, I was a terrible student at that point. But once we began actual flight training, I realized how essential performance calculations are—whether there’s enough distance for takeoff, whether we can land safely given the wind conditions, or whether the runway is long enough to shift the touchdown point to avoid wake turbulence from the departing aircraft. In moments like these, I found performance planning not only useful but surprisingly enjoyable.
It also made me aware of how important air temperature is, especially when working through those TEST PREP problems. So, I kept practicing the calculations over and over again until I could solve them correctly. To be honest, it was a real hassle!
Still, despite all my complaints, I was nearing the end of TEST PREP and had already learned a lot. That’s when I realized just how fascinating it is to become a pilot—you end up studying such a wide range of topics. I had no idea back then that I’d end up crying out of fear during an actual flight (LOL).
Next time, I’ll talk about Enroute Flight—including how to use a flight plotter (a mix between a ruler and a protractor) and a flight computer, along with the basic knowledge needed for navigation. (To be continued.)
