I joined the summer school programme of "The Myths of Plato" at Oxford University.
The class is multinational. Gritishs, Americans, Canadian, German, Dutch, Denmark and Japanese are joining this.
I can study just one point,
Human and Political has never changed for at least 2500 years.
I should thank my classmates very much for their teaching various kinds of culture and norms.
Programme details
Plato (427–347 BC) is one of the most famous philosophers ever. His dialogues are dotted with fictional and fantastical stories that he either picks up from tradition or makes himself. These delightful tales often appear at critical stages in the conversations, and some are quite long and elaborate. We will study the grander myths, explore their aim and purpose, and thereby employ them as a means to access the philosophy that they reveal. Hence we take an unconventional approach to thinking about Plato, in both literary and philosophical ways.
Session 1
We begin by getting to know Plato
Session 2
The cave: taking care for one’s learning (Republic)
Session 3
Prometheus: why morality emerges (Protagoras)
Session 4
The afterlife: what one can expect after an immoral life (Gorgias)
Session 5
Love: finding counterparts (Symposium)
Session 6
Love, again: its origin and nature (Symposium)
Session 7
The soul: another journey through the afterlife (Phaedo)
Session 8
Winged souls: if the soul could fly (Phaedrus)
Session 9
Er: a visit to Hades (Republic)
Session 10
Political rule: reverse cosmic rhythms (Statesman)
Session 11
Atlantis: a tale of two cities (Timaeus)
Session 12
We review the myths in a general discussion
Pre-course Assignment
“Protagoras” and “Gorgias”
Gengyo 源行
1. What happens in the story? “Virtue and Justice”
In Protagoras (the Chapter 1), Socrates and Protagoras discussed what virtue is, whether virtue can be taught or not. However, I do not think that they can come to a satisfactory rational conclusion. Finally, Zeus said that civic virtues are given to all men. A myth decided the answer.
“On Zeus’ instruction his messenger Hermes gave these not just to a few but to all men; and this civic virtue, the foundation of civil society, is man’s salvation (322c–d).”
It is also said that Zeus would test the naked soul in Gorgias (the Chapter 2). Testing is based on justice and honesty (crippled by arrogance and lies), not wealth nor status. I understand this justice and honesty as the comprehensively equivalent of "virtue" in Protagoras.
2. Which aspects of the story do you find intriguing and Why?
There are roughly two pillars of dialogue between Socrates and Protagoras.
1) “Can virtue be taught?"
2) "Can everybody have virtue?"
“Socrates, who had purported to doubt that it was teachable, makes it a kind of expertise – and hence teachable – available only to a few, and desirable as a good to the possessor: a clear contrast with Protagoras’ view by which virtue is widespread in society and taught by all to all precisely because ‘everyone is eager to teach the next the kind of expertise described by Socrates.”
Socrates thought that "virtue cannot be taught" and Protagoras thought “virtue can be taught." Socrates said, "Virtue comes from knowledge and experience. It requires specialization, and even if someone can teach virtue, it is only for a few people." (In my understanding of Plato, not experience, just knowledge can make virtue, because Plato denied sophists who have resorcins based on experience not knowledge.) On the other hand, Protagoras said, "Virtue is obtained in society, and citizens can teach each other."
In other words, Socrates is elitist in a sense, saying, "Only a small number of people can have virtue. Only those who have reached a certain level of knowledge and experience can have virtue. Zeus has given virtue to a small number of people." Protagoras states that "many people can have virtue. Zeus gives consciousness and justice to everyone." It is democratic in a sense.
If justice and honesty are generally the same as virtue, then all men will be judged, and all human will have justice and honesty to some extent. In other words, I think that Protagoras' idea that all men have virtue, to a greater or lesser extent, is logically consistent.
Do a few men have virtue, or do all have virtue? This debate has a lot to do with the governance system of states and cities. If only a few men have virtues (especially political virtues), the political system is suitable for stable governance by philosopher kings and collective philosophers who have the highest virtues. Also, if everyone has virtue, democracy in which everyone participates in politics is optimal.
3. What is the myth meant to show, and do you think it does show it?
There is no rational answer to this discussion/argument. Because I think that the definition of virtue itself is different between Socrates and Protagoras. The definition of virtue itself is different, therefore this debate is not intertwined.
Socrates (Plato) used the authority and tradition of "God" to create "myths" because he could not reasonably explain his theory. By doing so, I understood that Plato was trying to justify the thinking of Socrates (Plato).
I think that myths cannot appeal to reason nor persuade people rationally, but myths could appeal to emotions and convince people.
4. Why would (or should) anyone believe the myth?
Considering the definition of myth. I think that "myths are things that humans cannot reasonably explain or understand." In other words, myth can be just belief without justification, truth nor rationality.
In myth, it is important for people to believe or not, even if it is not rational.
Therefore, I think that the only way to advance thinking is to believe "myths" that cannot be reasonably explained and go beyond one's own knowledge and understanding.
Plato may have created myths to make influence on the thinking of many people, unlike Socrates, who emphasized cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals.
The myths are the same as the basis of thinking of "Noble Lie". Nobel Lie is the methods to govern/move people and city. Plato, who emphasized knowledge and honesty as virtues, created irrational "myths" and justified "lies".
Plato is in a different direction from Socrates, Plato's teacher, who died himself after poisoning for justice. I think the death of Socrates had a huge impact on Plato's thinking.
End of my essay,
Plato's Republic and Rule of Chine
Gengyo 源行
1. introduction
This essay aims to examine what China looks like from Plato's viewpoint, when Xi Jinping's powerful ruling regime was created. There is possibility, “the Chinese Communist Party may seem to be a better ruling system of state than democracy." And we may think the possibility that democracy, equality and freedom are "noble lies." The purpose of this essay is not to criticize neither affirm the Chinese Communist Party.
(i) Plato's View of the State
The ideal rule of Plato is the ‘kallipolis’ of "virtuous state ruled by philosopher-king”.
(ii) Noble Lies
There are two examples of "noble lies."
(1) By sharing the myth that the citizens of an ideal country were "born from the earth" and believing that they would play a role in accordance with the innate metal, the unity and bonds of the polis are maintained.
“While all of you, in the city, are brothers, we will say in our tale, yet god, in fashioning those of you who are fitted to hold rule, mingled gold in their generation, for which reason they are the most precious - but in the helpers, silver, and iron and brass in the farmers and other craftsmen.”[i]
Plato believed that it was most benefit of the state for the citizens to give their all to what each person did according to their own given abilities (daemon). From the standpoint of such divisiveness, three classes arise. Three classes of Plato are as follows:
i) Gold, the Philosophers: Their virtue is knowledge. They are the supreme authority of the state who recognize the form of the good and govern states.
ii) Silver Rank, Guardians/Soldiers: Their virtue is valor. They are in charge of external defense and maintenance of internal order and administrative officers as assistants to the ruler. The soldier should be subject to rulers.
iii) Iron/ bronze, the citizens/producers: the virtue is moderation. They are farmers and craftsmen in charge of economic activities.
The virtue of justice is not a virtue belonging to only one class, but a virtue concerning the whole people.[ii]
(2) A manipulative plot disguised as fairness is proposed to control marriage and have children between excellent men and women [iii]. Plato said “And, as you are all akin, though, for the most part, you will breed after your kinds”[iv]
Just I think illogically that (1) as the origin of national ideology and (2) as eugenics are both totalitarian and severely criticized by philosophers of modern democratic states.
2. Governance Classified by Plato
(i) The Role of the State
Plato considered five political regimes[v]. I classified the regimes from two axes: the level of accordance with the law and the number of persons participating in governance. I could divide into 7 categories as follows. In the lecture, I understood that the "philosophical king" could do the best, then the aristocracy is the second, and the worst was the Tyranny and demagogue/democracy [vi] fell into the bad category.
|
Ruled by law |
Ruled by man |
|
|
One ruler |
Philosopher King |
Tyranny |
|
Several rulers |
Aristocracy |
Oligarchy |
|
Timocracy |
||
|
Many rulers |
Republic (Modern Democracy?) |
Democracy/Demagogue |
Quote: Heavily revised by the author based on Japan's WIKIPEDEAI "Mixed Government[vii]".
From this table, Xi Jinping has the potential for both a "philosopher king (or aristocracy)" and a "tyrant (or oligarchy)" from stereotype viewpoints. In other words, if Xi Jinping is a philosopher, he is the best, but if he is less virtuous and a tyrant, it can be considered the worst regime.
In terms of the rule of law, if there is no law, states will result in being ruled by the arbitrariness of the ruler. Tyranny is rule by the will of one, and demagogue (democracy) is rule by the arbitrariness of the masses. Law is the logos, nous and the expression of reason. Law is made by man, especially by human reason[viii].
The era of Kronos and the eras of Yun and Shu
The period reigned the best was the era ruled by Kronos. In the era of Kronos, law was unnecessary[ix]. In the Confucius’s classics, the reign of Emperor Yun (尭) and [x] Emperor Shu (舜), the [xi]legendary emperors of China the best ruled China as the era of Kronos. No one sinned against the law. In other words, the penal law was not necessary and did not exist. Thus, ancient Greece and ancient China have something in common, and the rule of the wisdom of gods such as Kronos, Yao, and Shun is better than the rule of law.
“The myth tells of a period under the rule of Cronus—the Golden Age when there was need for neither human toil nor politics; [xii]”
(ii) The Chinese Governance System and Plato
Philosopher King
Plato demanded that a politician possess both knowledge and virtue, so that a politician had to be a philosopher. Philosopher King must have “wisdom” on how ideas can be realized into real states[xiii].
From this context, it is difficult to judge whether Xi Jinping of China is a philosopher king. However, Xi Jinping was studying chemistry at Tsinghua University, the highest level of chemistry, and also studying in the United States. He had been trained as the head of local politics since his youth. It seems likely that he has been educated in knowledge and wisdom as rulers. By the way, to be gold in China is to belong to "Communist Party". Of the 1.4 billion Chinese people, 80 million people, or about 5 percent, are members of the Communist Party. The Chinese Communist Party is rightly responsible for the training, education, and selection of young citizens. In addition, Xi Jinping is also a child of the Gold known as the Prince Party. I can see something very close to Gold of Plato's noble lie concept.
Aristocracy
Plato describes aristocratic government in which sovereignty is exercised by a few men of great virtue. It is my understanding that aristocracy in Greece refers not to a bloodline nobleman, but to a person of great ability of virtue and justice. In China, the 7-member Standing Committee has the power to decide substantive policy. This is a collective leadership regime to stop the president's runaways. Incidentally, the National People's Congress does not play much of a substantive legislative role. When I spoke directly with a senior official of the Chinese Communist Party, he pointed out that the subcommittees under the Standing Committee would substantially make the bill. This Standing Committees system seems to be like the aristocratic system.
People's Liberation Army
Guardians, silver-class, are the People's Liberation Army. It plays a major role not only in national defense, but also in maintaining public order, as pointed out by Plato. PLA also gathers, trains, and educates talented children of all Chine. PLA is completely under Xi Jinping, the chair of the Military Commission. As Plato points out, guardians must be loyal to the ruler.
Civilians
The iron/bronze class, the ordinary citizen is less informed. In today's China, not only the content of education but not only mass media such as newspapers, TV, and the Internet must be monitored and controlled by the government. Plato called on the citizen to abstain from temperance, and I believe that the citizens also need to know correct information and knowledge. I also believe that cities and societies cannot be sustained without conscience and justice of all citizens.
3. Summary
In Plato’s era, there were the extreme tyranny of Persia/Sparta and the extreme democracy of Athens as the opposites. All of these are too extreme to be good. Balance must have been the key to Plato. In tyranny, rulers seek their own self-interest and wage war as militarism. And in the democracy, Athens, many people grasp decision over all matters of the state, knowledge and virtue were ignored and the lead to demagogue.
I understand that Plato, while idealizing a philosophical king with form of the good, avoided the extremes and sought a "mixed government[xiv]" in which the strengths of the two types were harmonized. I may be able to define "China" as such a Plato’s republic. In fact, many Chinese academic researchers point out that the China realized Plato's ideal rule[xv]. In other words, tyranny lacks freedom, but it is superior in national power. Democracy tends to run in a self-indulgent manner, but it prevails in autonomy. By mixing the strengths, it is possible to form a powerful and autonomous state[xvi].
I wonder how Plato views the politics of the world in the 21st century? Does the current democracy look like Athens? Also, does China look like Sparta or Persia?
End of the Essay
[i] “Republic”, Book 3, 414e–15c
[ii] Politeia, 432 a, “What can be the remaining form that3 would give the city still another virtue? For it is obvious that the remainder is justice.” “Obvious.” “Now then,4 Glaucon, is the time for us like huntsmen5 to surround the covert and keep close watch that justice may not slip through and get away from us and vanish. “
[iii] Republic 459a “By all means.” “How, then, would the greatest benefit result? Tell me this, Glaucon. I see that you have in your house hunting-dogs and a number of pedigree cocks.1 Have you ever considered something about their unions and procreations?” “What?”2 he said. “In the first place,” I said, “among these themselves, although they are a select breed, do not some prove better than the rest?” “They do.” “Do you then breed from all indiscriminately, or are you careful to breed from the best3?”
[iv] “Republic”, Book 3, 414e–15c
[v] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato%27s_five_regimes
[vi] Democracy is ‘the rule by the demos’, where ‘demos’ can be understood as ‘the people’, and as “‘the mob’…the unfit” (Wolff; 2006, 67)
[vii]https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B7%E5%90%88%E6%94%BF%E4%BD%93
[viii] Politikos, 294 a
[ix] I cannot find citations, sorry.
[x] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Yao
[xi] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Shun
[xii] The Myths of Plato, pp. 86.
[xiii] Politikos,284e.
[xiv] https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100202361
[xv] Haun Saussy remarks sagely and to the point: “In what societies can you get people to believe anything if you say it’s based in biology? In what societies is the biology alibi more of a liability?” (email, November 15, 2018), Zhang Lili 张立立, 向谁而说的”高贵的谎言”? [To whom does the “Noble Lie” lie?], 世界哲学 World Philosophy 5 (2013): 60–68, Luo Xinggang 罗兴刚, 爱的教育:”高贵的谎言”背后—政治哲学如何作为原初的伦理学 [An education of love: Behind the Noble Lie; Political philosophy as the original ethics], 人文杂志 [Journal of the humanities] 4 (2012): 30–35. Li Yongchen 李永成, 国内政治、对外政策与美国外交谎言-兼及发展中美关系的若干问题 [Domestic politics, foreign policy and American diplomatic lies—some issues concerning the development of Sino-US relations], Diplomatic Review (Journal of the Foreign Affairs College), 2017, http://www.sohu.com/a/132195362_618422.
[xvi] Note: The population of the areas of Greek in the 4th century BC has been estimated at up to 7.5-10 million . At that time, we should examine whether the concept of Plato can be applied to China, which has a population of 1.4 billion.