世界建築 I

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Architecture - The art of designing and constructing buildings (structures ), and other environmental features. A person who practises architecture is called an architect .

The jargon of architecture is what architects and designers archly call "talkitecture" or "archispeak." They refer to windows as "glazing " or "fenestration ," and a beam or lintel as "trabeation ." A covered driveway is a "porte-cochere." Nothing is simply flat , it's "planar " instead. Construction people are content with solid Anglo-Saxon words: wall, window, and door. Architects add a savory salad of Latin- and French-based words. Architects eschew gustatory metaphors like my salad, but they can't hold back from using the human body as metaphor: a building can have arms, head, spine, skeleton, skin, etc.

Western periods of architectural history generally parallel those of the other arts: classical , Gothic , Renaissance , Mannerism , Baroque , Rococo , Neoclassicism , Romanticism , Modernism , and Postmodernism among them.

Some examples of architecture:

England, Salisbury Plain, Stonehenge , 2750-1500 BCE, a Neolithic monumental stone temple / observatory. Also see circle , dolmen , megalith , menhir , monolith , and Stone Age .

Egypt, El Giza, Great Pyramid also known as "Pyramid of Cheops" or "Khufu's Pyramid" (tallest of the three pictured), 2600-2480 BCE, bearing masonry (cut stone), 756 feet square in plan, and 481 feet (153 meters) high. The square of its height equals the area of each triangular face , as determined by Herodotus in 450 BCE. The base of the pyramid covers about 13 acres. The pyramids at Giza are descendants of earlier stepped designs which were built in superimposed layers. They are gigantic prisms unique in world architecture. To build the Great Pyramid it took an about 2,300,000 dressed stone blocks (averaging 2.5 tons each) -- more than any otherstructure ever built. Contemporary Egyptologists think the blocks were moved on log rollers and sledges, and then ramped into place.

Greece, Athens, The Parthenon , 447 and 438 BCE. It can be seen at the top in this model of how the Acropolis once appeared. The Parthenon was the first building to be constructed on the Acropolis. It is described as being octostyle peripteral because it has eight columns on its front and the back, and because it is surrounded by a colonnade or peristyle . Inside, it is constructed as most temples were. The central chamber, orcella , faced east. At one end of this chamber was a large wooden statue of Athena which was covered with gold and ivory . There was apronaos , or porch, at the east end and a opisthodomus, or porch, at the west end. At the back of the temple is a chamber called the Parthenon, or chamber of the Virgin, which was used as a treasury and held the sacrifices. This plan was very common among temples of that period.
See a picture of the Parthenon: a photo of c. 1990 , an engraving of a restoration . Also see Greek art and mythology .

Egypt, Early Roman period, c. 15 BCE, Temple of Dendur , Aeolian sandstone , length of gateway and temple 82 feet (25 m), Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY. See Egyptian art .

Roman Colosseum , or Flavian Amphitheater, 70 to 82 CE, a vast ellipse with tiers of seating for 50,000 spectators around a central elliptical arena. The Colosseum had approximately eighty entrances so crowds could arrive and leave easily and quickly. The plan is a vast ellipse, measuring externally 188 x 156 m (615 x 510 feet), with the base of the building covering about 6 acres. Vaults span between eighty radial walls to support tiers of seating and for passageways and stairs. The facade of three tiers of arches and an attic story is about 48.5 m (158 feet) tall. Below the wooden arena floor, there were numerous rooms and passageways for wild beasts and other provisions for staging the spectacles. Eighty walls radiate from the arena and support vaults for passageways, stairways and the tiers of seats. At the outer edge circumferential arcades link each level and the stairways between levels. The three tiers of arcades are faced by three-quarter columns and entablatures ,Doric in the first story, Ionic in the second, and Corinthian in the third. Above them is an attic story with Corinthian pilasters and small square window openings in alternate bays. At the top, brackets and sockets carried the masts from which the velarium, a canopy for shade, was suspended. The construction utilized a careful combination of types: concrete for the foundations, travertine for the piers and arcades, tufa infill between piers for the walls of the lower two levels, and brick-faced concrete used for the upper levels and for most of the vaults.

The Pantheon , Rome, 118 CE, photo. It consists of a great circular hall (roofed by a hemispherical vault ), which is entered by first passing through the pronaos . All sixteen columns of the pronaos are monoliths of Egyptian granite . The pediment was decorated with reliefs in bronze as were the internal trabeations of the pronaos. See pantheon and portico .

Interior view of the Pantheon , photo. A portion of the Pantheon 's oculus is visible at the top of this photograph, sunlight projecting through it, and landing on a portion of the coffered dome .

Heneage Finch, Fourth Earl of Aylesford (English, 1751-1812), Interior of the Pantheon, Rome , pen and ink and watercolor on paper , 26.4 x 18.3 cm, Tate Gallery, London.

English, from the encyclopedia, 1897: Four views of the Pantheon: front elevation, flank elevation, cross-section, and floor plan , late 19th century, engraving . See -section , elevation , and plan .

Roman, Rome, Arch of Severus , 205, bearing masonry . A classic example of a triumphal arch .

Maurice de Sully (French), Notre Dame Cathedral , Paris, 1163-1250, bearing masonry, cut stone. Notre Dame Cathedral was seminal in the evolution of the French Gothic style | It is 110 feet -- the first cathedral built on a truly monumental scale . With its compact, cruciform plan, its sexpartite vaulting, flying buttresses and vastly enlarged windows, it became a prototype for future French cathedrals. Also see gargoyle .

Donato Bramante (Italian, 1444-1514), Tempietto of San Pietro , Montorio, Rome, Italy, after 1502, bearing masonry.

Andrea Palladio (Italian, 1508-1580), Villa Rotonda (Villa Capra) , begun 1567, general view of exterior, Vicenza, Italy. This building has an identical portico on each of four sides. See Palladian .

Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (Indian, reigned 1627-1658), Taj Mahal , 1630-1653, an Islamic tomb in a walled garden built for Shah Jahan's wife Mumatz Mahal [aka Arjuman Banu Begum], of bearing masonry and inlaid marble , with onion-shape domes and flanking towers , in Agra, India, seat of the Mughal Empire. Sir Banister Fletcher wrote in A History of Architecture, "The interior of the building is dimly lit through pierced marble lattices and contains a virtuoso display of carved marble. Externally the building gains an ethereal quality from its marble facings, which respond with extraordinary subtlety to changing light and weather."

Decimus Burton and Richard Turner (English), Palm House at Kew Gardens , London, England, 1844-48, a greenhouse of glass and iron for the Royal Botanic Gardens, 363 feet long, 100 feet wide, 66 feet high.

John Augustus Roebling (American, 1806-1869), Brooklyn Bridge , 1869-1883, suspension bridge with steel cable, and stone masonry piers. Completed by John's son, Washington Augustus Roebling.

Gustave Eiffel (French, 1832-1923) , Eiffel Tower , 1887-1889, exposition observation tower, exposed iron construction, height 985 feet, a symbol of Paris worldwide. Built for Paris's 1889 International Exhibition, the centenary celebration of the French Revolution.

Henry Hobson Richardson (American, 1838-1886), Reading Room of the Crane Library , 1880 - 1883, bearing masonry, rough-cut stone, with eyebrow dormers, and round tower with gable roof, Quincy, Massachusetts.

Antonio Gaudi (Spanish, 1852-1926), Casa Batllo , 1905-1907, an apartment building (remodel), concrete , Barcelona, Spain.

Antonio Gaudi, Sagrada Familia (Church of the Holy Family) , masonry , uncompleted during Gaudi's lifetime and uncompleted today, though construction continues. Also see Expressionism .

Louis Sullivan (American, 1856-1924), Carson Pirie Scott & Company department store, Chicago, IL, c. 1912, Chicago, IL.

Frank Lloyd Wright (American, 1867-1959), Robie House, Chicago, 1909, Chicago, IL, with long overhangs on low-pitched roofs and horizontally raked brick joints. See Prairie style .

Frank Lloyd Wright, Living Room of the Francis W. Little House, 1912-1914, Wayzata, Minnesota. Originally Francis W. Little's country house, this room has been installed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY.

Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater House, Edgar J. Kaufmann House, 1937-39, Mill Run, PA. This house is the paradigm of organic architecture, where a building becomes an integral part of its natural setting.
Wright's Model of Fallingwater , 1934-37, acrylic , wood , metal , expanded polystyrene , and paint, 40 1/2 x 71 1/2 x 47 5/8 inches (102.9 x 181.6 x 121 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY.
Readers of the Journal of the American Institute of Architects voted Fallingwater (c. 2000) the best building of the last 125 years. Paul Goldberger, architecture critic for the New York Times, has called it "one of the most sublime works of art of our time." See rectangle .

Frank Lloyd Wright, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum , New York, an art museum art constructed of concrete as a spiral ramping gallery which expands as it coils around an unobstructed well of space, topped by a flat -ribbed glass dome | This building evoked for Wright "the quiet unbroken wave." Also see Prairie style or Prairie school .

Gerrit T. Rietveld (Dutch, 1884-1964), , 1924-25, steel beams and columns,wood and concrete, Utrecht, The Netherlands. Also see De Stijl .

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (American, born Germany, 1886-1969)

Charles Edouard Jeanneret, known as 'Le Corbusier' (French, 1887-1965), Villa Savoye , 1928-29, concrete and plastered unit masonry, Poissy, France. See French art .

Charles Edouard Jeanneret, known as 'Le Corbusier', Notre Dame du Haut , or Ronchamp, 1955, reinforced concrete, soft-form composition, deep windows with colored glass, wall thickness 4-12 feet, Ronchamp, France. Sited atop a hillside, it has rough masonry walls faced with whitewashed Gunite (sprayed concrete) and a roof of contrasting beton brut. Surrealism is a key to many of Le Corbusier's late works, and notably the church at Ronchamp. Its form has been considered analogous to a nun's habit, or a ship, or a dove.

R. Buckminster Fuller (American, 1895-1983)

Philip Johnson (American, 1906-2005), Johnson House , also known as The Glass House, New Caanan, Connecticut, 1949, steel frame with glass, with an open plan, and a bath in brick cylinder. The basic concept for the Johnson House came from Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (German, 1886-1969).

Gae Aulenti (French, contemporary), Musee d'Orsay , 1980-1987, a railway station remodeled to become a museum for nineteenth century art, bearing masonry, etc., Paris.

I. M. (Ieoh Ming) Pei (American, 1917-) , Pyramid of the Louvre , 1989, the art museum entrance, constructed of glass, steel rods and cable. This photo: looking through an arch in the museum building toward the pyramid in its courtyard (the "Cour Napoleon").

Frank O. Gehry, Guggenheim Bilbao Museum, 1997, much of its outer covering or "skin" is made of titanium sheets, Bilboa, Spain. "The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao is a collection of interconnected blocks housing galleries, an auditorium, a restaurant, a museum store and administrative offices. These buildings have as their central focus a single architectural composition. With its towering roof, which is reminiscent of a metallic flower, the museum will enliven the riverfront and serve as a spectacular gateway to the city." Because architectural designs composed of such biomorphic forms are worked out by computer programs, this sort of design has been called blob architecture ( a term coined by architect Greg Lynn in 1995. He's said it was derived from a sort of acronym for a technical description of a computer-formed shape --
a "binary large object."),

Richard Rogers (Italian, 1933-) and Renzo Piano (Italian, 1937-), Centre Pompidou , 1972 - 1976, high-tech steel and glass museum, with a cast exoskeleton, and a staircase in a transparent tube.

Richard Meier (American, 1934-), High Museum of Art, Atlanta, GA, 1983.

Zaha Hadid (British, 1950-, born Iraq), The Peak , a project for Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; exterior perspective, 1991, synthetic polymer on paper mounted on canvas, 51 x 72 inches (129.5 x 182.9 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY.

Maya Lin (American, 1959-), Vietnam War Memorial , Washington, D.C.,1982, a powerfully evocative minimalist monument , a V-shaped wall of polished black granite on which have been carved the names of Americans who died. The wall is 10.1 feet high at its center. The entire length of the wall is 493.5 feet; each half is 246.75 feet long. The wall contains 58,175 names (as of October 1990). The names (and other words) on the wall are 0.53 inches high and 0.015 inches deep.

• "I call architecture frozen music."
  Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), German author. Letter to Eckerman (1829) See music .
  
  
• "No person who is not a great sculptor or painter can be an architect. If he is not a sculptor or painter, he can only be a builder."
  John Ruskin (1819-1900), English writer and art critic .
  
  
• "Form ever follows function."
  Louis Henry Sullivan (1856-1924), U.S. architect. "The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered," in Lippincott's Magazine (March 1896).
  
  
• "No house should ever be on any hill or on anything. It should be of the hill, belonging to it, so hill and house could live together each the happier for the other."
  Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959), U.S. architect, in An Autobiography, 1932. See site .
  
  
• "Architecture is the triumph of human imagination over materials, methods and men, to put man into possession of his own earth. It is at least the geometric pattern of things, of life, of the human and social world. It is at best that magic framework of reality that we sometimes touch upon when we use the word order."
  Frank Lloyd Wright. Quoted by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer and Gerald Nordland, ed. Frank Lloyd Wright: In the Realm of Ideas. p 48.
  
  
• "Machinery, materials and men -- yes -- these are the stuff by means of which the so-called American architect will get his architecture. . . . Only by the strength of his spirit's grasp upon all three -- machinery, materials and men -- will the architect be able so to build that his work may be worthy the great name architecture."
  Frank Lloyd Wright. Quoted by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer and Gerald Nordland, ed. Frank Lloyd Wright: In the Realm of Ideas. p 48.
  
  
• "Bring out the nature of the materials, let their nature intimately into your scheme. . . . Reveal the nature of the wood, plaster, brick or stone in your designs; they are all by nature friendly and beautiful."
  Frank Lloyd Wright. Quoted by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer and Gerald Nordland, ed. Frank Lloyd Wright: In the Realm of Ideas. p 48. See material .
  
  
• "Architecture . . . is for the young. If our teenagers don't get architecture -- if they are not inspired -- we won't have the architecture . . . that we must have if this country is going to be beautiful."
  Frank Lloyd Wright.
  
  
• "A doctor can bury his mistakes but an architect can only advise his clients to plant vines."
  Frank Lloyd Wright. See mistake .
  
  
• "Architecture is inhabited sculpture."
  Constantin Brancusi (1876-1957), Romanian-born French sculptor. See sculpture .
  
  
• "The Parthenon is really only a farmyard over which someone put a roof; colonades and sculptures were added because there were people in Athens who happened to be working and wanted to express themselves."
  Pablo Picasso (1882-1973), Spanish artist. See Cubism .
  
  
• "Always design a thing by considering its next larger context -- a chair in a room, a room in a house, a house in an environment, an environment in a city plan."
  Eero Saarinen (1910-1961), Finnish-American architect.
  
  
• "Bring out the nature of the materials, let their nature intimately into your scheme. . . . Reveal the nature of the wood, plaster, brick or stone in your designs; they are all by nature friendly and beautiful."
  Le Corbusier [Charles Edouard Jeanneret] (1887-1965), French architect, in his Vers une Architecture, 1923.
  
  
• "Architecture is the art of how to waste space."
  Philip Johnson (1906-), U.S. architect, historian. New York Times (Dec. 27, 1964).
  
• "Like a carbuncle on the face of an old and valued friend."
  Charles, Prince of Wales, referring to a proposed extension to the National Gallery

中國建築 7

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中國民居

中國國際廣播電臺 中國各地的居住建築，又稱民居。居住建築是最基本的建築類型，出現最早,分佈最廣,數量最多。由於中國各地區的自然環境和人文情況不同，各地民居也顯現出多樣化的面貌。 中國漢族地區傳統民居的主流是規整式住宅，以採取中軸對稱方式佈局的北京四合院為典型代表。北京四合院分前後兩院，居中的正房體制最為尊崇，是舉行家庭禮儀、接見尊貴賓客的地方，各幢房屋朝向院內,以遊廊相連接。北京四合院雖是中國封建社會宗法觀念和家庭制度在居住建築上的具體表現，但庭院方闊，尺度合宜，寧靜親切，花木井然，是十分理想的室外生活空間。華北、東北地區的民居大多是這種寬敞的庭院。 圖：北京四合院 堂屋和土樓　 中國南方的住宅較緊湊，多樓房，其典型的住宅是以小面積長方形天井為中心的堂屋。這種住宅外觀方正如印，且樸素簡潔，在南方各省分佈很廣。 在閩南、粵北和桂北的客家人常居住大型集團住宅，其平面有圓有方，由中心部位的單層建築廳堂和周圍的四、五層樓房組成，這種建築的防禦性很強，以福建永定縣客家土樓為代表。在中國的傳統住宅中，永定的客家土樓獨具特色，有方形、圓形、八角形和橢圓形等形狀的土樓共有8000余座，規模大，造型美，既科學實用，又有特色，構成了一個奇妙的民居世界。 　 福建土樓用當地的生土、砂石、木片建成單屋，繼而連成大屋，進而壘起厚重封閉的“抵禦性”的城堡式建築住宅——土樓。土樓具有堅固性、安全性、封閉性和強烈的宗族特性。樓內鑿有水井，備有糧倉，如遇戰亂、匪盜，大門一關，自成一體，萬一被圍也可數月之內糧水不斷。加上冬暖夏涼、防震抗風的特點，土樓成了客家人代代相襲，繁衍生息的住宅。 少數民族居住建築 中國少數民族地區的居住建築也很多樣，如西北部新疆維吾爾族住宅多為平頂，土墻，一至三層，外面圍有院落；藏族典型民居“碉房”則用石塊砌築外墻，內部為木結構平頂；蒙古族通常居住于可移動的蒙古包內；而西南各少數民族常依山面水建造木結構幹欄式樓房，樓下空敞，樓上住人，其中雲南傣族的竹樓最有特色。中國西南地區民居以苗族、土家族的吊腳樓最具特色。吊腳樓通常建造在斜坡上，沒有地基，以柱子支撐建築，樓分兩層或三層，最上層很矮，只放糧食不住人，樓下堆放雜物或圈養牲畜。 北方窯洞和古城民居 中國地域寬廣、民族較多，各地民居的形式、結構、裝飾藝術、色調等各具特點。在此，主要介紹一下個性鮮明的北方窯洞和古城內的民居。 中國北方黃河中上游地區窯洞式住宅較多，在陜西、甘肅、河南、山西等黃土地區，當地居民在天然土壁內開鑿橫洞，並常將數洞相連，在洞內加砌磚石，建造窯洞。窯洞防火，防噪音，冬暖夏涼，節省土地，經濟省工，將自然圖景和生活圖景有機結合，是因地制宜的完美建築形式，滲透著人們對黃土地的熱愛和眷戀。 此外，中國還有保存較完好的古城，這些古城內均有大量的古代民居。其中，山西平遙古城和雲南麗江古城均在1998年被列入《世界遺產名錄》。 平遙古城是現存最為完整的明清古縣城，是中國漢民族中原地區古縣城的典型代表。迄今為止，這座城市的城墻、街道、民居、店舖、廟宇等建築，仍然基本完好，其建築格局與風貌特色大體未動。平遙是研究中國政治、經濟、文化、軍事、建築、藝術等方面歷史發展的活標本。 始建於南宋的麗江古城是融合納西民族傳統建築及外來建築特色的惟一城鎮。麗江古城未受中原城市建築禮制的影響，城中道路網不規則，沒有森嚴的城墻。黑龍潭是古城的主要水源，潭水分為條條細流入墻繞戶，形成水網，古城內隨處可見河渠流水淙淙，河畔垂柳拂水。 圖：麗江古城

中國建築 6

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宮殿建築

中國國際廣播電臺 宮殿建築又稱宮廷建築，是皇帝為了鞏固自己的統治，突出皇權的威嚴，滿足精神生活和物質生活的享受而建造的規模巨大、氣勢雄偉的建築物。這些建築大都金玉交輝、巍峨壯觀。 從秦朝開始，“宮”成為皇帝及皇族居住的地方，宮殿則成為皇帝處理朝政的地方。中國宮殿建築的規模在以後的歲月裏不斷加大，其典型特徵是鬥拱碩大，以金黃色的琉璃瓦鋪頂，有絢麗的彩畫、雕鏤細膩的天花藻井、漢白玉臺基、欄板、梁柱，以及周圍的建築小品。北京故宮太和殿就是典型的宮殿建築。 為了體現皇權的至高無上，表現以皇權為核心的等級觀念，中國古代宮殿建築採取嚴格的中軸對稱的佈局方式：中軸線上的建築高大華麗，軸線兩側的建築相對低小簡單。由於中國的禮制思想裏包含著崇敬祖先、提倡孝道和重五穀、祭土地神的內容，中國宮殿的左前方通常設祖廟（也稱太廟）供帝王祭拜祖先，右前方則設社稷壇供帝王祭祀土地神和糧食神（社為土地，稷為糧食），這種格局被稱為“左祖右社”。古代宮殿建築物自身也被分為兩部分，即“前朝後寢”：“前朝”是帝王上朝治政、舉行大典之處，“後寢”是皇帝與后妃們居住生活的所在。 中國宮殿建築以北京的故宮為代表。故宮又名紫禁城，是明清兩朝皇帝的宮廷，先後有24位皇帝在此居住過。故宮佔地面積72萬平方米，有房屋9千多間，故宮周圍是數米高的紅色圍墻，周長3400多米，墻外是護城河。故宮規模之大、風格之獨特、陳設之華麗、建築之輝煌，在世界宮殿建築中極為罕見。 故宮分前後兩部分，前一部分是皇帝舉行重大典禮、發佈命令的地方，主要建築有太和殿、中和殿、保和殿。這些建築都建在漢白玉砌成的8米高的臺基上，遠望猶如神話中的瓊宮仙闕，建築形象嚴肅、莊嚴、壯麗、雄偉，三個大殿的內部均裝飾得金碧輝煌。故宮的後一部分——“內廷”是皇帝處理政務和后妃們居住的地方，這一部分的主要建築乾清宮、坤寧宮、禦花園等都富有濃郁的生活氣息，建築多包括花園、書齋、館榭、山石等，它們均自成院落。 由於朝代更疊及戰亂，中國古代宮殿建築留存下來的並不多，現存除北京故宮外，還有瀋陽故宮，此外，西安尚存幾處漢唐兩代宮殿遺址。