オペレーション・マネジメントに関する詳細な解説を箇条書きでまとめます。
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フレデリック・テイラーの科学的管理法 (1883年)
- テイラーは各作業における時間の正確な測定法を提案。
- 科学的管理法の目的は、時間ロスを減少させ、品質を向上させること。
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ワークサンプリング法と予定動作時間法（PMTS）
- ワークサンプリング法は統計的に作業時間を集計する手法。
- PMTSは最小の動作にかかる標準時間を積算し、作業時間を予測する手法。オペレーション・マネジメント
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テイラーの差別出来高給制度と科学的管理法の特徴（1911年）
- 差別出来高給制度は高効率な労働者に高賃金を与え、怠業を防ぐ制度。
- 科学的管理法の特徴：真に科学的な検討、労働者の選抜と教育訓練、管理者と労働者の協力行動。
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フランク・ギルブレスとリリアン・ギルブレスの動作研究（1912年頃）
- 連続写真を使用した作業の動作研究。
- PMTSの基礎を築く。
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ウォルター・シューハートと管理図（1924年）
- 管理図の発明により、問題を偶然原因と異常原因に分けた。
- 統計的プロセス制御の分野への貢献。
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MTM法の発明（1940年代）
- フォード・ハリス、G. J.ステグマーテン、J. L.シュワッブによって発明された。
- 予定動作時間法の一手法で、業界標準から作業時間を計算。
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数理最適化とコンピュータの発展（1940年代）
- ソ連のレオニート・カントロヴィチが初めて数理最適化に成功。
- シンプレックス法の発表により、オペレーションズ・リサーチの分野が発展。
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トヨタ生産方式（1940年代）
- 大野耐一によって導入されたジャストインタイム生産システム。
- 自働化と生産効率向上を目指す。
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アマゾンのオンライン事業（1994年）
- インターネットの普及を利用し、商品の検索から配達までのスピーディなプロセスを実現。
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ビジネスプロセス・リエンジニアリング（BPR）（1993年）
- マイケル・ハマーによって提唱された、ワークフローとビジネスプロセスの分析と設計に焦点を当てる手法。
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リーン生産方式の普及（1990年代以降）
- ムリ・ムダ・ムラを排除し、生産効率を向上させる手法。
- サービス産業にも応用されている。
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シックス・シグマ（1985-1987年）
- モトローラによって開発された品質管理手法。
- ジャック・ウェルチによって全社的に適用され、効果を発揮。
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国際標準化機構によるISO 9000（1987年）
- 品質マネジメントシステムに関する規格。
- 品質管理の重要性が高まり、企業に適用される。
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新たな分野の注目（21世紀）
- ビジネスプロセス・リエンジニアリング、リーン生産方式、シックス・シグマ、Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems、Project Production Management などが注目を集めている。
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サービス産業の変革（1970年代以降）
- マクドナルドによる生産ラインの導入。
- フェデックスやアマゾンによる革新的なサービス提供の開始。
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ウォルマートの成功（1962年以降）
- 低価格販売を可能にする効率的な店舗デザインとサプライチェーン管理。
- 大規模な小売業者として世界最大の企業へ成長。
これらの出来事や手法は、オペレーション・マネジメントの進化に大きな影響を与え、現代の生産・サービス業界においても重要な要素となっています。
In 1883, Frederick Taylor introduced a method to accurately measure the time required for each task using a stopwatch. Taylor advocated scientific management to eliminate time waste and improve quality, developing various management techniques for different tasks. Notably, work sampling and predetermined motion time systems (PMTS) are worth mentioning. Work sampling is a statistical method for aggregating the time for each task, while PMTS accumulates standard times for minimal motions (such as turning the left wrist 90 degrees) to predict the time required for each task. PMTS excelled in predicting work times without direct observation of actual tasks. Around 1912, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth utilized continuous photographs of work processes, establishing the foundation for PMTS.
Productivity saw significant improvements due to technological advancements and labor specialization, but quantitative measurement and examination methods were underdeveloped until Frederick Taylor's research. His early focus was on the "differential piece-rate system," but later, he conducted a series of experiments and measurements on metal machining and workers' tasks, leading to quantitative studies. The system aimed to increase wages for efficient and high-quality work while decreasing wages for workers unable to meet standards. Taylor believed that this system could prevent organized slowdowns by rewarding fast workers with higher wages. In 1911, Taylor published the book "The Principles of Scientific Management," outlining the features of scientific management:
- Truly scientific examination
- Scientific selection of workers
- Scientific training of workers
- Intimate and friendly cooperation between managers and workers
Taylor's influence also extended to motion studies, paving the way for time studies focusing on standard work and standard working hours. Frank Gilbreth, in 1921, introduced the Flow Process Chart. Other notable researchers of the time include Henry Gantt, who devised the Gantt chart. In 1910, Hugo Diemer published the first book on industrial engineering, "Factory Organization and Administration."
In 1913, Ford Harris presented "How many parts to make at once," introducing the concept of economic order quantity. After this paper, numerous studies on production planning and inventory management with mathematical considerations emerged.
In 1924, Walter Shewhart invented control charts, distinguishing between common causes and assignable causes of problems. In 1931, Shewhart published "Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product," the first systematic book on statistical process control. He defined control as follows:
"In the process sense, to control means to keep within bounds, the production process so that any special causes of variation are corrected before they result in the production of a faulty product."
In the 1940s, H. B. Maynard, G. J. Stegemerten, and J. L. Schwab invented the MTM method, a technique within PMTS. MTM calculates work time based on industry standards rather than direct observation. The detailed explanation is found in the 1948 publication "Method-Time Measurement."
During this era, various optimization methods were well-known, ranging from Ford Harris's simple approach to Euler's variational calculus and Lagrange's method of undetermined multipliers. With the development of digital computers, operations research as a field emerged. Colossus, developed during World War II, marked the beginning of programmable electronic computers, leading to significant progress in mathematical optimization. Linear programming problems became solvable, and Leonid Kantorovich achieved success in solving them. In 1947, George Dantzig introduced the Simplex method. These methods now constitute a branch of operations research.
During World War II, the computational capabilities of computers improved, contributing to the development of efficient production methods and the application of mathematical and statistical methods. Industrial engineering, systems engineering, operations research, and management science research supported these developments. By combining operations research and systems engineering, researchers were able to address complex and large-scale modern problems. The development of small, high-performance computers, artificial intelligence, the internet, and other technologies opened new possibilities for operations in both goods production and service provision.
In the United States, computers played a significant role in operations management, leading to techniques such as material requirements planning (MRP), sophisticated mathematical optimization, and production simulation. In post-war Japan, methodologies such as the Toyota Production System and Lean Production were developed.
Taiichi Ohno joined Toyota in 1943, and the company was already practicing a unique production system centered around just-in-time production and automation. The concept of just-in-time production was inspired by American supermarkets, where customers could buy their preferred products in the desired quantities at any time, and the shelves were quickly replenished. Ohno thought about applying a similar approach to production, aiming for efficient and flexible processes. The concept of automation was initiated by Toyota's founder, Kiichiro Toyoda, who developed looms that automatically stopped in case of defects. In 1983, J.N. Edwards published a book outlining seven types of waste, contributing to the understanding of Lean principles.
In the 1980s, Total Quality Management (TQM) introduced by W. Edwards Deming, Joseph Juran, and Armand Feigenbaum in the United States became popular in Japan. TQM is a strategy for systematically improving quality, addressing aspects such as employee participation, organizational culture, customer surveys, supplier quality management, and aligning quality management with business objectives. Shoichiro Toyoda studied Japanese methods and identified seven principles:
- Process control: Statistical process control and worker responsibility for quality
- Visualization of quality: Measurement tools and mistake-proofing
- Attitude of compliance: "Quality first"
- Production line stoppage: Halting the line until quality issues are resolved
- Self-correction of mistakes: Defective items are corrected by the person who processed them
- 100% inspection: Automation of quality inspection and foolproofing of machines
- Continuous improvement: Striving for zero defects
In the 1960s, George W. Plossl and Oliver W. Wight developed Materials Requirements Planning (MRP), which was later succeeded by Joseph Orlicky, leading to IBM's MRP. MRP was presented by the American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) as the "MRP Crusade" in 1972. It differentiated between independent demand items and dependent demand items, providing control for the latter through bills of materials and product design. Orlicky published a book on MRP in 1975, and Gene Thomas of IBM further developed it into MRP II, encompassing functions beyond manufacturing such as distribution, accounting, human resources, and procurement, forming the basis for Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP).
In the early 1900s, the United States had service industries like banks, professional services, education, retail, railways, and telegraphs, with local capital operating most except railways and telegraphs. Although 31% of workers were in the service industry, 31% and 38% worked in manufacturing and agriculture, respectively. In 1973, Daniel Bell proposed the idea of a post-industrial society, emphasizing the growing importance of service industries over manufacturing, leading to significant societal changes.
In the early 1950s, McDonald's revolutionized service operations with a standardized menu, production line-style kitchens, clean and efficient customer service, and rapid customer service. This approach was modeled on manufacturing for kitchen tasks but customer-centric for service. McDonald's expansion through franchising also played a pioneering role.
In 1971, FedEx initiated next-day delivery services in the United States, collecting parcels by midnight and redistributing
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the parcels the next morning. This hub-and-spoke model improved the efficiency of overnight package delivery. In the 1990s, the internet's rise led to e-commerce, transforming retail and service industries. Companies like Amazon and eBay altered traditional business models, emphasizing online platforms, electronic transactions, and supply chain management. These changes required innovative logistics and fulfillment strategies, such as Amazon's extensive use of automation and robotics in its warehouses.
In the early 21st century, the concept of Industry 4.0 emerged, integrating digital technologies into manufacturing and service operations. This includes the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence, big data analytics, and cyber-physical systems. Industry 4.0 aims for smart factories, where machines communicate with each other and humans in real-time, optimizing production processes and supply chains.
The field of operations management has continuously evolved, adapting to technological advancements, societal shifts, and the changing nature of industries. From the early days of scientific management to contemporary approaches like Lean and Industry 4.0, operations management remains a crucial discipline for organizations striving to enhance efficiency, quality, and customer satisfaction in their operations.