◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆
第一回
◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆
今日からTOEFLのリーディング対策をやっていきたいと思います。
では早速ですが、やってみましょう。
◆AGGRESSION
When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior. Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.
The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear to be involoved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however, whose brains are more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggestes that aggression is natural and even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behavior, including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows. Those indiviuals who possess characteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation. In many species, such characteristices include aggressiveness. Because aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations.
The sociobiological view has been attacked on numerous grounds. One is that peoples's capacity to outwit other species, not their aggressiveness, appears to be the dominant factor in human survival. Another is that there is there is too much variation among people to believe that they are dominated by, or at the mercy of, aggressive impulses.
The Psychodynamic Approach. Theeorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demmands immediately. Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense, sees us as "steam engins". By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. Pent-up aggressive impuleses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life.
According to psychodynamic theory, the best ways to prevent harmful aggression may be to encourage less harmful aggression. In the steam-engine analogy, verbval aggression may vent some of the aggressive steam. So might cheering on one's favorite sports team. Psychoanalysts, therapists adopting a psychodynamic approach, refer to the venting of aggressive impulses "catharisys." Catharisis is theorized to be a safety valve. But research findings on the usefulness of catharsis are mixed. Some studies suggest that catharsis leads to reductions in tension and a lowered likelihood of future aggression. Other studies, however, suggest that letting some steam escape actually encourages more aggression later on.
The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values, by the ways in which we interpret our situations, and by choice. For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified - as during wartime - are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively.
One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasant feelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not automatically. Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people's motives. Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressive people often distort other people's motives. For example, they assume that other people mean them harm when they do not.
Catharsis: In psychodynamic theory, the purging of strong emotions or the relieving of tensions.
◆下記のことは、ざっと読み終えたあとで、わかっておいたほうがいいです。
Main Topic: aggressive behaviorについての分類
The Biological Approach
1) Numerous biological structures and chemicals
ex) hypothalamus
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus
→ stereotypical aggressive behaviors
not in human
The Psychodynamic Approach.
The Cognitive Approach.
さて、問題をやっていきましょう。
=================================================================
When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior. Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.
The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear
to be involoved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain.
In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern:
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical
aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however, whose brains are
more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
==================================================================
◆問１◆ According to paragraph 2, what evidence indicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus?
A. Some aggressive animal species have a highly developed hypothalamus.
B. Artificial stimulation of the hypothalamus results in aggression in animals.
C. Animals behaving aggressively show increased activity in the hypothalamus.
D. Animals who lack hypothalamus display few aggessive tendencies.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
◆全体的な指針
１．論理関係を捉える
・３大重大パターンを捉える。
①抽象・具体 ②対比・並列 ③因果関係
・論理マーカー
２．Modifierは抜いて考える。
３．未知の単語は推測
◆ 前準備
指針を念頭に入れて解答を行う。文章を読む際には以下のように単純化出来るようにする。
The Biological Approachについて.
多くの生物学上の構造・化学が、攻撃性に関係してくる。
ex) hypothalamus。(★one is ... というようになっている場合は、いくつかあるうちの一つを指示しているにすぎないので、それは例と捉えること)
hypothalamus への刺激 → stereotypical aggressive behaviors in animal
人には当てはまらない。複雑なので。
◆ 解法
１．設問を先に読み、lead words (key words)を確認する。
２．段落を読む目的は、内容理解。lead wordsが含まれている部分は慎重に！
３．ポイントは記憶と理解。確信をもって選択する。
◆ キーワード
名詞：
動詞：
因果関係、抽象・具体を表すものに注意。
◆ 文理解（内容理解。何を言っているのか？）
○ When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior.
Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.
第一パラグラフ、When one animal attacks another と、ある動物が別の動物を攻撃する時と限定している。
つづき、it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior. 攻撃行動をとる、とつづく。
攻撃行動についての話だとわかる。
○sychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.
精神学者がいくつかのアプローチををもっている。人間の攻撃行動を理解するために。
と続いているので、つづくパラグラフは、攻撃行動理解するためのアプローチを紹介すると予測できる。
○ The Biological Approach.
とまず、これから The Biological Approachについて書かれることを示唆している。
○Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear
to be involoved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain.
Numerous biological structures and chemicalsが、攻撃性に関連している。
その一つに、hypothalamusがあり、それは、 a region of the brain. ということ。
○In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
certain stimuliの反応として、many animals は、instinctive aggressive reactionsを示す。
○The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern:
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical
aggressive behaviors in many animals.
hypothalamusが、inborn reaction pattern に関連している。
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus が動物において攻撃性を指示す。
○In people, however, whose brains are
more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
★howeverの後につづく一文は重要点が来ることが多い。
人間の脳は複雑で、他の部分の脳が本能による行動を抑制する。
まとめ。
The Biological Approach
1) Numerous biological structures and chemicals
ex) hypothalamus
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus
→ stereotypical aggressive behaviors
not in human
◆ 解析２（文と文の関わりを中心に理解）論理構造
①The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear
to be involoved in aggression.
②One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain.
③In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
④The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern:
⑤electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical
aggressive behaviors in many animals.
⑥In people, however, whose brains are more complex,
other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
①→②： 抽象→具体（Biological Approachの説明）
②→③： 抽象→具体（hypothalamusの説明）
③→④： 抽象→具体 ':'が使われている場合、':'以下が詳しく説明してある。
⑤ ： 原因→結果 stimulation → aggressive behaviors
⑥ ： ポイント
◆ 解析３（Modifierを抜いた文で理解する）
aggressive behavior. ★KEY WORD!!
Psychologists have adopted several approaches
The Biological Approach. ★KEY WORD!!
Numerous biological structures and chemicals★KEY WORD!!
One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain.
many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
aggressive behaviors in many animals.
In people, however, whose brains are more complex,
other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
動物の攻撃性について。いくつかのアプローチがあるらしい。
そのひとつが、The Biological Approach。
Numerous biological structures and chemicalsに着目するらしい。
例としてhypothalamusというのあって刺激に反応する脳の一部らしい。
人間にはあてはまらない。複雑なので。
ということを単純化した文で理解する必要がTOEFLには求められる。
◆問◆ According to paragraph 2,
what evidence indicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus?
A. Some aggressive animal species have a highly developed hypothalamus.
B. Artificial stimulation of the hypothalamus results in aggression in animals.
C. Animals behaving aggressively show increased activity in the hypothalamus.
D. Animals who lack hypothalamus display few aggessive tendencies.
さて、ここで問題に立ち返ってみよう！！
what evidence indicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus?
なにが問われているのか？何が記述されていたか？を、問題文に振り返らずに記憶と理解で考えてみよう！
ここで問われているのは、hypothalamusにかかわる攻撃性の証拠。
それを探し出せばよい。
文中では、Biblogical approach, その一例としてhypothalamusがあげられていて、
それは動物の攻撃性には脳の一部の刺激が関連している。ということ。
hypothalamusへの刺激が攻撃性に関連している証拠を求めている。
ということで、これに当てはまる解答はCとなる。
A: highly developed hypothalamusに関連する記述は文中にない。また内容が本文と逆のことを言っている。
B: electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals.
と本文中にあるので、これだ！と思われた方もいるかと思うが、これはひっかけ。
「electrical stimulationが、aggressive behaviors in animalの引き金となる」と文中にあるが、
Bは刺激に対する結果があると言っている。
問題文は「hypothalamusへの刺激が攻撃性に関連している証拠を求めている。」
C: In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
と上記の記述に関することが書かれている。
C の「Animals behaving aggressivelyが、increased activity in the hypothalamusにみられた。」は証拠を示しているのは、このCのみ。
D: 本文中と関係ない記述。
TOEFLの問題では、基礎さえあればだいたい２に絞れることが多い。
迷ったら意味がうまくとれていないことなので、論理構造をうまくとらえるようスキルを磨いていこう！
こんな感じで、進めていきます。
今後ともよろしくお願いいたします。
■書籍は Official Guide to the New Toefl iBT With Cd-rom
を使っています。
http://www.amazon.co.jp/Official-Guide-New-Toefl-Cd-rom/dp/0071481044/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=english-books&qid=1259896273&sr=8-2
第一回
◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆
今日からTOEFLのリーディング対策をやっていきたいと思います。
では早速ですが、やってみましょう。
◆AGGRESSION
When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior. Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.
The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear to be involoved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however, whose brains are more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggestes that aggression is natural and even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behavior, including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows. Those indiviuals who possess characteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation. In many species, such characteristices include aggressiveness. Because aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations.
The sociobiological view has been attacked on numerous grounds. One is that peoples's capacity to outwit other species, not their aggressiveness, appears to be the dominant factor in human survival. Another is that there is there is too much variation among people to believe that they are dominated by, or at the mercy of, aggressive impulses.
The Psychodynamic Approach. Theeorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demmands immediately. Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense, sees us as "steam engins". By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. Pent-up aggressive impuleses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life.
According to psychodynamic theory, the best ways to prevent harmful aggression may be to encourage less harmful aggression. In the steam-engine analogy, verbval aggression may vent some of the aggressive steam. So might cheering on one's favorite sports team. Psychoanalysts, therapists adopting a psychodynamic approach, refer to the venting of aggressive impulses "catharisys." Catharisis is theorized to be a safety valve. But research findings on the usefulness of catharsis are mixed. Some studies suggest that catharsis leads to reductions in tension and a lowered likelihood of future aggression. Other studies, however, suggest that letting some steam escape actually encourages more aggression later on.
The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values, by the ways in which we interpret our situations, and by choice. For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified - as during wartime - are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively.
One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasant feelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not automatically. Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people's motives. Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressive people often distort other people's motives. For example, they assume that other people mean them harm when they do not.
Catharsis: In psychodynamic theory, the purging of strong emotions or the relieving of tensions.
◆下記のことは、ざっと読み終えたあとで、わかっておいたほうがいいです。
Main Topic: aggressive behaviorについての分類
The Biological Approach
1) Numerous biological structures and chemicals
ex) hypothalamus
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus
→ stereotypical aggressive behaviors
not in human
The Psychodynamic Approach.
The Cognitive Approach.
さて、問題をやっていきましょう。
=================================================================
When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior. Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.
The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear
to be involoved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain.
In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern:
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical
aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however, whose brains are
more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
==================================================================
◆問１◆ According to paragraph 2, what evidence indicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus?
A. Some aggressive animal species have a highly developed hypothalamus.
B. Artificial stimulation of the hypothalamus results in aggression in animals.
C. Animals behaving aggressively show increased activity in the hypothalamus.
D. Animals who lack hypothalamus display few aggessive tendencies.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
◆全体的な指針
１．論理関係を捉える
・３大重大パターンを捉える。
①抽象・具体 ②対比・並列 ③因果関係
・論理マーカー
２．Modifierは抜いて考える。
３．未知の単語は推測
◆ 前準備
指針を念頭に入れて解答を行う。文章を読む際には以下のように単純化出来るようにする。
The Biological Approachについて.
多くの生物学上の構造・化学が、攻撃性に関係してくる。
ex) hypothalamus。(★one is ... というようになっている場合は、いくつかあるうちの一つを指示しているにすぎないので、それは例と捉えること)
hypothalamus への刺激 → stereotypical aggressive behaviors in animal
人には当てはまらない。複雑なので。
◆ 解法
１．設問を先に読み、lead words (key words)を確認する。
２．段落を読む目的は、内容理解。lead wordsが含まれている部分は慎重に！
３．ポイントは記憶と理解。確信をもって選択する。
◆ キーワード
名詞：
動詞：
因果関係、抽象・具体を表すものに注意。
◆ 文理解（内容理解。何を言っているのか？）
○ When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior.
Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.
第一パラグラフ、When one animal attacks another と、ある動物が別の動物を攻撃する時と限定している。
つづき、it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior. 攻撃行動をとる、とつづく。
攻撃行動についての話だとわかる。
○sychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.
精神学者がいくつかのアプローチををもっている。人間の攻撃行動を理解するために。
と続いているので、つづくパラグラフは、攻撃行動理解するためのアプローチを紹介すると予測できる。
○ The Biological Approach.
とまず、これから The Biological Approachについて書かれることを示唆している。
○Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear
to be involoved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain.
Numerous biological structures and chemicalsが、攻撃性に関連している。
その一つに、hypothalamusがあり、それは、 a region of the brain. ということ。
○In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
certain stimuliの反応として、many animals は、instinctive aggressive reactionsを示す。
○The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern:
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical
aggressive behaviors in many animals.
hypothalamusが、inborn reaction pattern に関連している。
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus が動物において攻撃性を指示す。
○In people, however, whose brains are
more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
★howeverの後につづく一文は重要点が来ることが多い。
人間の脳は複雑で、他の部分の脳が本能による行動を抑制する。
まとめ。
The Biological Approach
1) Numerous biological structures and chemicals
ex) hypothalamus
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus
→ stereotypical aggressive behaviors
not in human
◆ 解析２（文と文の関わりを中心に理解）論理構造
①The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear
to be involoved in aggression.
②One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain.
③In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
④The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern:
⑤electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical
aggressive behaviors in many animals.
⑥In people, however, whose brains are more complex,
other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
①→②： 抽象→具体（Biological Approachの説明）
②→③： 抽象→具体（hypothalamusの説明）
③→④： 抽象→具体 ':'が使われている場合、':'以下が詳しく説明してある。
⑤ ： 原因→結果 stimulation → aggressive behaviors
⑥ ： ポイント
◆ 解析３（Modifierを抜いた文で理解する）
aggressive behavior. ★KEY WORD!!
Psychologists have adopted several approaches
The Biological Approach. ★KEY WORD!!
Numerous biological structures and chemicals★KEY WORD!!
One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain.
many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
aggressive behaviors in many animals.
In people, however, whose brains are more complex,
other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
動物の攻撃性について。いくつかのアプローチがあるらしい。
そのひとつが、The Biological Approach。
Numerous biological structures and chemicalsに着目するらしい。
例としてhypothalamusというのあって刺激に反応する脳の一部らしい。
人間にはあてはまらない。複雑なので。
ということを単純化した文で理解する必要がTOEFLには求められる。
◆問◆ According to paragraph 2,
what evidence indicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus?
A. Some aggressive animal species have a highly developed hypothalamus.
B. Artificial stimulation of the hypothalamus results in aggression in animals.
C. Animals behaving aggressively show increased activity in the hypothalamus.
D. Animals who lack hypothalamus display few aggessive tendencies.
さて、ここで問題に立ち返ってみよう！！
what evidence indicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus?
なにが問われているのか？何が記述されていたか？を、問題文に振り返らずに記憶と理解で考えてみよう！
ここで問われているのは、hypothalamusにかかわる攻撃性の証拠。
それを探し出せばよい。
文中では、Biblogical approach, その一例としてhypothalamusがあげられていて、
それは動物の攻撃性には脳の一部の刺激が関連している。ということ。
hypothalamusへの刺激が攻撃性に関連している証拠を求めている。
ということで、これに当てはまる解答はCとなる。
A: highly developed hypothalamusに関連する記述は文中にない。また内容が本文と逆のことを言っている。
B: electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals.
と本文中にあるので、これだ！と思われた方もいるかと思うが、これはひっかけ。
「electrical stimulationが、aggressive behaviors in animalの引き金となる」と文中にあるが、
Bは刺激に対する結果があると言っている。
問題文は「hypothalamusへの刺激が攻撃性に関連している証拠を求めている。」
C: In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
と上記の記述に関することが書かれている。
C の「Animals behaving aggressivelyが、increased activity in the hypothalamusにみられた。」は証拠を示しているのは、このCのみ。
D: 本文中と関係ない記述。
TOEFLの問題では、基礎さえあればだいたい２に絞れることが多い。
迷ったら意味がうまくとれていないことなので、論理構造をうまくとらえるようスキルを磨いていこう！
こんな感じで、進めていきます。
今後ともよろしくお願いいたします。
■書籍は Official Guide to the New Toefl iBT With Cd-rom
を使っています。
http://www.amazon.co.jp/Official-Guide-New-Toefl-Cd-rom/dp/0071481044/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=english-books&qid=1259896273&sr=8-2