植民地主義を後追いした新興国(米国と日本)
19世紀後半、西欧列強は植民地経営のコスト増大を背景に、植民地の直接統治から、経済的・政治的な影響力を通じた間接支配へと重心を移し始めた。一方、この時期から本格的な領土拡張政策を展開した新興国が、米国と日本である。
日本
アヘン戦争(1839〜1842年)は、日本に大きな衝撃を与えた。東アジア最大の国家であった清国でさえ、西欧列強によって武力で開国を強制される現実を目の当たりにし、日本の指導者や知識人は、軍事・財政・行政のいずれの面でも江戸幕府の封建体制では欧米列強に対抗できないことを認識するようになった。その後の第二次アヘン戦争(1856〜1860年)を経て危機感はさらに強まり、幕府が諸大名に広く意見を求めたことから、政治体制をめぐる活発な議論が起こり、尊王攘夷運動や外国人襲撃事件なども相次いだ。やがて、植民地化を回避するためには幕藩体制を改め、権威はあるものの実権力のない天皇を中心に据えて中央集権国家を築く必要があるとの認識が広まり、「尊皇攘夷」は明治維新へとつながる政治理念となった。
維新前後には、薩摩・長州を中心とする攘夷派の志士による外国人襲撃や外国勢力との武力衝突が発生した。しかし、薩英戦争や下関戦争において西欧諸国の圧倒的な軍事力を目の当たりにしたことで、多くの維新指導者は攘夷を放棄し、日本を守るには西洋の制度や技術を徹底的に取り入れる以外に道はないと考えるようになった。その結果、日本は急速かつ体系的な西洋化へと舵を切ることになる。
日本とプロシア(後のドイツ帝国)の類似性はしばしば指摘される。いずれも下からの民衆革命ではなく、国家主導による「上からの保守革命」で近代国家を形成したこと、強力な官僚機構の下で民間経済を育成したこと、中産階級から労働者階級に至るまで規律や勤労倫理が比較的浸透しており、資本主義との親和性が高かったことなどが共通点として挙げられる。また、後年には、両国とも急進的なナショナリズムと権威主義的政治が台頭し、国民が強く動員された点も共通している。
明治政府は「富国強兵」を掲げ、封建制から近代国家への転換を進めた。中央集権的な徴税制度、個人単位の納税制度、私的土地所有権の確立など、国家制度は急速に近代化された。一方で、地租改正や秩禄処分などの改革によって旧武士階級は経済基盤を失い、多くの農民も重い税負担から土地を手放して小作農へ転落した。その結果、大地主への土地集積が進み、社会的不平等は拡大した。こうした変化は士族反乱や農民一揆を引き起こしたが、政府はこれらを武力によって鎮圧した。
1873年には徴兵制が導入され、教育制度や産業技術、法制度なども西欧諸国をモデルとして急速に整備された。大学制度・陸軍・憲法はドイツ、海軍は英国、法制度はフランス、郵便制度や農業技術は米国など、それぞれ先進国の制度を積極的に導入した。1875年には約600人、1890年には約3,000人の外国人専門家(お雇い外国人)が日本に招聘され、近代化を支えた。
また、中央集権国家を支える精神的基盤として、政府は天皇を国家統合の象徴と位置付け、国家神道を制度化した。こうして日本は、家父長的で伝統的権威を国家イデオロギーとして維持しながら、西洋の制度・技術・軍事・産業を積極的に導入するという独自の近代化を実現した。
Emerging Powers that Followed Colonialism: The United States and Japan
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, as the costs of maintaining colonial empires increased, the Western European powers gradually shifted their emphasis from direct colonial rule to indirect forms of political and economic domination. At the same time, two emerging powers—the United States and Japan—began pursuing territorial expansion on a significant scale.
Japan
The First Opium War (1839–1842) profoundly shocked Japan. It demonstrated that even Qing China, then regarded as the dominant power in East Asia, could be defeated and forced to open its markets by the Western powers. Japanese leaders and intellectuals consequently came to realize that the Tokugawa shogunate's feudal system lacked the military, fiscal, and administrative capacity to resist Western imperialism. The Second Opium War (1856–1860) further intensified this sense of crisis. As the shogunate sought advice from influential feudal lords, vigorous debates over Japan's political future emerged, accompanied by the rise of the Sonnō Jōi("Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians") movement and a series of attacks against foreigners. Gradually, many reformers concluded that preventing Japan from becoming a colony required dismantling the feudal order and building a centralized state under the authority of the Emperor, who possessed immense symbolic legitimacy but little political power. Thus, Sonnō Jōi evolved into the political ideology that ultimately led to the Meiji Restoration.
In the years surrounding the Restoration, anti-foreign activists from domains such as Satsuma and Chōshū carried out attacks against foreigners and clashed militarily with Western powers. However, Japan's overwhelming defeat in encounters such as the Anglo-Satsuma War and the Shimonoseki Campaign convinced many of the Restoration leaders that expelling the foreigners was impossible. They therefore abandoned isolationist ideals and instead embraced systematic Westernization, believing that adopting Western institutions and technology was the only way to preserve Japan's independence.
Japan's modernization is often compared with that of Prussia (later Germany). In both countries, modernization was driven not by popular revolution from below but by conservative revolution from above. Strong bureaucratic states fostered private economic development, while discipline and a strong work ethic permeated society from the middle classes to the working classes, creating favorable conditions for capitalist development. Both countries also experienced the later rise of radical nationalism and authoritarian politics, which mobilized the population on an unprecedented scale.
Under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei ("Enrich the Country, Strengthen the Military"), the Meiji government transformed Japan from a feudal society into a modern state. It established centralized taxation, introduced an individual-based tax system, and legally recognized private land ownership. At the same time, reforms such as the Land Tax Reform and the abolition of samurai stipends deprived many former samurai of their economic foundations, while numerous small farmers lost their land under heavy tax burdens and became tenant farmers. As land ownership became concentrated in the hands of large landlords, social inequality widened significantly. These changes triggered frequent uprisings by former samurai and peasants, all of which were suppressed by the government.
Universal conscription was introduced in 1873, and Japan rapidly imported Western educational systems, technology, and political institutions. Germany served as the principal model for higher education, the army, and the constitution; Britain for the navy; France for the legal system; and the United States for the postal service and agricultural development. Approximately 600 foreign advisors were employed in 1875, rising to around 3,000 by 1890, and they played a crucial role in Japan's modernization.
To consolidate the new centralized state, the government also institutionalized State Shinto, placing the Emperor at the center of national identity and political legitimacy. In this way, Japan achieved a distinctive form of modernization that combined rapid Westernization in its institutions, military, industry, and technology with the preservation of traditional imperial authority as the ideological foundation of the state.